The History of Karate by Morio Higaonna

The History of Karate by Morio Higaonna - Book Review covering the history of Naha te / Goju ryu and the life of Chojun Miyagi. Although this book is now somewhat old, I recently got a copy of it from a friend and decided to review it based on the strength of the material presented. That said, the first important thing to note is that the title of the book is somewhat deceptive. The sub-title is 'Okinawan Goju Ryu' and that is precisely what is covered in the book. It is less 'The History of Karate' and far more 'The History of Goju Ryu Karate'. That shouldn't dissuade anyone interested in the history of karate or the Okinawan arts in general from reading it, but the book will be far more appealing to Goju ryu practitioners than anyone else.

The contents of the book are a blend of historical facts and collected anecdotes. The facts are far more appealing than the anecdotes as the latter can be somewhat vague in painting an accurate picture and at least one story is clearly made up and this unfortunately casts a shadow of doubt over the rest of the anecdotal evidence. The story in question relates to Chojun Miyagi and the claim that one night during the Battle of Okinawa he was strafed by a single US fighter plane but managed to escape any harm by running in a zig-zag pattern. I would be dubious about the story even if it was claimed to have happened during the day, but the fact that a carrier-based plane was flying around at night is clearly rubbish. I appreciate that in East Asia in particular great reverence is given to elders and teachers and former students are no doubt well-meaning in attempting to portray their sensei as being the bees knees, but it makes it difficult sometimes to distinguish between what is fact and what is not.

Morio Higaonna has done a great job of presenting the information and where he is lacking in conclusive proof he is happy to present all theories. One such instance is his frank admittance that, after research in Fuzhou prefecture, it is impossible to determine which Chinese kung fu / wushu style in particular Goju ryu is descended from.

The History of Karate briefly covers the historical background that led to the formation of various karate styles (most notably the military dominance of Okinawa by the Shimazu clan from 1609 onwards) and then jumps into the Goju ryu history proper with Kanryo Higaonna's trip to Fuzhou to train with Ryu Ryu Ko. Kanryo Higaonna (no relation to the author and famed karate master Morio Higaonna) returned to Okinawa and began teaching. One student in particular stood out, Chojun Miyagi.

Much of the book is devoted to the life of Chojun Miyagi and how he formalized and spread what developed from Naha te and came to be known as Goju ryu karate around Okinawa and finally to mainland Japan. A lot of great, insightful information is presented though as mentioned above, I recommend treating at last some of it with a degree of skepticism. There are some gems though, such as details on Chojun Miyagi's trip to Hawaii and his discovery and adoption of the kongo ken training device.

The book also covers the lives of Jin'an Shinzato (Miyagi's top student before Shinzato's death during the Battle of Okinawa) and An'ichi Miyagi (a primary teacher of Morio Higaonna).

This brings me to the most glaring omission in The History of Karate. After the death of Chojun Miyagi in 1953 it was Ei'ichi Miyazato, Miyagi's most senior post-war student, who established the Jundokan dojo in Okinawa to continue the teaching of Goju ryu. Despite this Morio Higaonna barely mentions Miyazato and there is certainly no focus given to this late master aside from a short interview at the back of the book. To be fair to Higaonna, Miyazato admitted in an interview that he had been approached to participate in the book, but still I feel a lot more could have been done to detail the life of head of the Jundokan. Afterall, a tremendous amount of information was presented on Miyagi, Kanryo Higaonna and even Ryu Ryu Ko without interview access. Without going into the politics of it all it seems that Morio Higaonna championed the idea that An'ichi Miyagi - Higaonna's principle teacher through much of his life - was the true inheritor of the legacy left by Chojun Miyagi. Unfortunately this is reflected in the book and to an extent it does read as if Morio Higaonna is attempting to legitimize any claim he may make as being the next in line of direct succession from Ryu Ryu Ko to Kanryo Higaonna to Chojun Miyagi to An'ichi Miyagi and then to the author. In this respect, the latter history of more modern Goju ryu does not appear to be being presented as objectively as the earlier history.

The History of Karate: Conclusion

All said though, The History of Karate is a great read and well worth delving into. Various other karate masters are mentioned to a greater or lesser extent and anyone with an interest in the overall shift from karate as a fighting art taught to select students to a more popularized version will find this book of value. Needless to say, for Goju ryu trainees, this should still be considered essential reading despite some bias in the presentation of evidence and opinion.

Goju Ryu Karate Kata

Goju ryu karate kata traces their roots back to pre-twentieth century Okinawa and before that to Fuzhou in Fujian Province, Southern China. According to the accepted history, Kanryo Higaonna left Okinawa for Fuzhou sometime in the second half of the nineteenth century (precise dates vary, from 1867 to 1877). In Fuzhou Higaonna is reported to have become the live-in disciple of a Chinese Whooping Crane master named Ryu Ryu Ko. Upon Higaonna's return to Okinawa he passed on his teaching to Chojun Miyagi, the man who coined the term Goju to describe the style that was formerly identified simply as Naha te owing to the location in Okinawa that it was taught and practiced.

The kata of Goju ryu karate are very different from the Shuri te branch that provided the base forms for Shotokan. Unlike the Shotokan patterns of which many were altered first by Master Itosu and then later again by Master Funakoshi on mainland Japan, the Goju ryu forms are not known to have been changed, except for the practice of Sanchin being altered from using an open 'spear' hand to a closed fist punch.

Are all Goju Ryu Karate Kata from China?

However, there is an emerging debate as to whether nor not the bulk of Goju ryu karate kata are in fact originally from China in the first place. Exactly who Ryu Ryu Ko was is currently unknown and Morio Higaonna admits in his book The History of Karate that the style of Chinese kung fu that Goju ryu is supposedly derived from cannot be determined. Sanchin kata is the only form on the list with clear roots in Southern China and it is a staple of numerous kung fu styles. The Gekisai Dai Ichi and Gekisai Dai Ni patterns are definitely later additions created and introduced in 1940 by Master Miyagi and Tensho seems to be derived from Rokusho. Author Nathan Johnson concludes in his book The Great Karate Myth that the rest of the Goju ryu karate kata were in fact created by Master Miyagi on Okinawa in the first half of the twentieth century. I discuss the possible origins of each form individually so please follow the links below to learn more.

Whether of Chinese origin or not, the kata found in Goju ryu are powerful and combine linear and circular movement to fight at close-quarters using punches, kicks, elbow and knee strikes as well as locks, takedowns and throws. Central to the study of the kata and Goju ryu in general is Sanchin and this 'hard' form is tempered by the softer approach taken in Tensho - the hard (go) and soft (ju) of Goju ryu.

The following kata are demonstrated by Master Morio Higaonna, arguably the most famous Goju ryu karateka alive today. While no relation to Kanryo Higaonna, Master Higaonna trained with Chojun Miyagi and then Eiichi Miyazato and Anichi Miyagi, two of Master Miyagi's top students. At the time of writing (2015) he currently teaches in Okinawa.

Gekisai Dai Ichi
Gekisai Dai Ni
Saifa
Seiunchin
Shisochin
Sanseru
Sepai
Kururunfa
Seisan
Suparinpei
Tensho
Sanchin

Sanchin

Sanchin is perhaps the oldest kata to be found in all the different karate styles. Older versions can be clearly still seen in Southern Chinese kung fu styles (unlike many other karate kata which claim to have originated in China but which cannot be proven to have done so). The kata means 'three battles' and what this means precisely is unknown, though a common interpretation is that it refers to the 'battle' to control one's body, mind and spirit. In Chinese the kata is called saam ching and may trace its roots back to the Southern Shaolin Temple and perhaps, as author Nathan Johnson suggests in Barefoot Zen, to Bodhidharma himself, or at least to his inspiration as the founder of Ch'an / Zen Buddhism.

Whether Buddhist in origin or not, the kata also incorporates Taoist 'Immortality' ritual aspects and emphasizes forced breathing in conjunction with a distinctive pelvic movement whereby the pelvic bone is retracted on the in breath and pushed forward on the out breath.

The Goju ryu version of the kata performed by Master Morio Higaonna emphasizes dynamic tension and this is tested - sometimes severely - by heavy slapping. This may not be healthy (and in my opinion, it isn't) as the body is simultaneously starving the muscles of oxygen (through the tension) while also depriving the body as a while of oxygen (through the slowed, forced breathing). Author Mark Bishop draws attention to the fact that several high ranking Okinawan karateka have died at relatively young ages (and consider that Okinawan people currently have the highest average life expectancy anywhere in the world) of complications relating to their heart condition. He himself eventually quit the practice of the kata for this reason and I have also read that this practice is rejected by Chinese martial artists who execute their similar form without the forced breathing and dynamic tension. This kata is seen to represent the 'hard' aspect of Goju, with Tensho being the softer side.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Sanchin

Tensho

The first part of the name of Tensho, ten, can mean 'revolving', 'rotating' or 'turning', and sho means 'palm', so the name could mean 'revolving palm', 'rotating palm' or 'turning palm'.

This form is definitely one that Chojun Miyagi created after he returned from training in China. He presented it in 1921 as a 'softer' version of the 'harder' Sanchin. It was to represent the ju (soft) aspect of Goju ryu karate. Precisely where Master Miyagi got his inspiration from though is a matter of some conjecture. Conventional history tells us that it developed out of Rokusho, a White Crane kung fu form. Five of the six hand positions detailed in the Bubishi - The Six Hands of the Shaolin Style - occur in the form. These were hand positions used to deliver accurate blows that could be deadly.

Another theory though is that Master Miyagi based it on a form - unknown at the present time - that he learned while in Fuzhou or that it is based on something (also presently unknown if true) he studied with Master Gokenki, a White Crane master actively teaching on Okinawa between 1912-1940.

Another idea (that I came across from Kancho Nenad Djurdjevic, based in Australia) is that the kata amalgamated and supplemented techniques that were practiced individually as 'basic' techniques at the Kodo training hall located in Fuzhou and used by Okinawan ex-pats. These movements, while no doubt based on kung fu techniques, were isolated from forms and simply practiced as we perform kihon today. This is a very interesting theory and from the information available it seems to me that an investigation of some of the Shotokan kata from this point of view may be worth undertaking.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Tensho

Suparinpei

The name Suparinpei - 108 - indicates a Buddhist influence once again on Okinawan karate, via Southern Chinese kung fu styles and, it is maintained, the Southern China Shaolin Temple. Other Goju ryu forms that supposedly relate to Buddhist thought are Sanseru (36) and Sepai (18). In Shotokan there is Nijushiho (24) and Gojushiho Dai (54). I take the view however that the number 108 itself is not specific to Buddhism and is a borrowed number from a much more ancient form of numerology related to the precession of the equinoxes in which 72 is the prime number (my notes on Nijushiho in particular explain this theory in greater detail). 108 is related to 72 in the following way: (72/2) + 72 = 108. The kata does not in fact have 108 movements, hence a strong case being made for the influence of Buddhist thought.

This form is the longest form and is regarded as being the hardest to perform and perfect. It is believed to have been one of the original four brought back from Fuzhou by Kanryo Higaonna and taught to Chojun Miyagi. Miyagi sensei may have created the name of this form as it is thought that it is derived from Pechurin (100 Techniques), a kata still practiced in its original form with its original name in the To'on ryu. On the other hand author George Alexander presents evidence that the kata was performed in 1867 for a group of visiting Chinese dignitaries by Tomimura Peichin. Alexander also suggests that the form was known prior to that in Kume village. This isn't to suggest that Master Higaonna didn't learn it in China, only that he wasn't the first Okinawan to know it. It is also therefore possible that he learned it as Pechurin before the later (possible) name change by Chojun Miyagi.

The kata is a White Crane kung fu style form with elements of Tiger boxing included. White Crane tends to be more defensive in nature and makes greater use of speed, evasion and the delivery of accurate strikes to precise targets.

Master Higaonna performing Suparinpei

Seisan

The name Seisan means '13' but it is often understood as '13 Hands'. '13' in isolation is connected to good luck and prosperity in China which may account for the naming of the form, though another explanation is that the figure refers to the number of non-repeating techniques found in the original (this kata is not only found in Goju ryu karate but several other styles as well, including Shotokan in which it is named Hangetsu).

This kata is however believed to be one of the four originals brought back directly from Fuzhou by Kanryo Higaonna after learning it from his teacher Ryu Ryu Ko. However, a different version existed in Okinawa prior to this as it is known that Seisho Aragaki (an early instructor of Master Higaonna) was teaching this form as early as 1867. It is believed that the different versions trace their lineage back to the Yong Chun White Crane kung fu style. Some have detected a Hsing I influence. This form (also known as Sesan) is the primary kata that author Nathan Johnson argues in The Great Karate Myth is intended to be a sai form, but performed without the weapons. This is supposedly more apparent in the Uechi ryu version.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Seisan

Kururunfa

Literally the name of Kururunfa means 'to detain for a long time and suddenly rip apart' and it marks a return to the conceptual approach to the study of kata promulgated by Gavin Mulholland in his book Four Shades of Black. This kata is particularly notable for the greater use of the hips to generate power, particularly, in this kata, with the use of open handed movements that can be used in a variety of ways.

This is another Goju ryu kata that suffers from serious doubt as to whether or not Kanryo Higaonna actually brought it back from China or if it was later learned by Chojun Miyagi or even created by the latter master from a synthesis of Chinese and Okinawan influences. Given the latter opinion, it is unknown precisely which school of kung fu the form originated from; possibly Dragon style, but (and like the other Goju ryu kata) no one knows for sure.

The form is mesmerizing to watch and very stylistic, combining slower movements with rapid bursts of action and high, fluid stances with low, stable stances. This kata very much reflects both the hard (go) and soft (ju) of the style.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Kururunfa

Sepai

Sepai (also known as Seipai) translates at '18 hands' and again we see a reference to the prime precessional number of 72 (18 x 4 = 72). This is discussed in more detail in Nijushiho, Gojushiho Dai (from Shotokan karate) and Sanseru (Goju ryu). While orthodox history maintains that this is one of the forms Kanryo Higaonna brought back from Fuzhou after studying with Ryu Ryu Ko, modern (and less partisan) research now holds that this form did not originate with Kanryo Higaonna.

It is also unclear which school of kung fu it originates from. Again, orthodox opinion holds that it comes from the Crane or Tiger schools but there is a suggestion it may be from the Dragon school. The form does resemble to an extent Nipaipo, as created by Shito ryu founder Kenwa Mabuni, and which itself was influenced by Neipai, a White Crane form taught by the famous Gokenki.

The kata builds on the concept of multi-directional fighting introduced in Shisochin and Sanseru while introducing new techniques such as the hiraken (one knuckle fist - an excellent means to attack vital points or otherwise make pinpoint attacks).

Master Morio Higaonna performing Sepai

Sanseru

Sanseru sometimes comes under the name Sanseiru, but both versions are acceptable and mean the same thing: 36 hands. Supposedly this has Buddhist significance, as have all kata with a number of moves related to the figure 108. I have put forward an argument that the origins of this numerology stretch back further in time and pre-exist Buddhism, being in fact related to the precessional number 72 (which in turn influenced Buddhism). Check out other articles on Nijushiho (24) and Gojushiho Dai (54). Sanseru is also known informally as the Dragon form.

The kata - and here I reject orthodox opinion that Kanryo Higaonna brought all the Goju ryu kata back from China save Gekisai Dai Ichi, Gekisai Dai Ni and Tensho - is believed to have been one of the original four first introduced by Kanryo Higaonna and learned from his teacher Ryu Ryu Ko. That said, it is debatable as to whether or not Chojun Miyagi himself learned the kata directly from Master Higaonna. The reason for this is that Miyagi's senior, Juhatsu Kyoda, learned a variation of the form directly from Master Higaonna while Master Miyagi was away from Okinawa on military service. Kyoda's version and Miyagi's version are quite different and that suggests a different teacher. It is possible that Master Miyagi learned the kata from a Chinese practitioner directly while in Fuzhou in 1915.

The kata is highly asymmetrical, especially with the several kicking techniques covered, and the practitioner may like to learn to perform the kata with both sides of his body.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Sanseru

Shisochin

Shisochin means 'four directional battle' and the form seems to take its name from the four palm heel strikes delivered in different directions seen in the video below from 0:28-0:34. The kata covers a lot of ground though and the practitioner is constantly moving in different directions throughout.

As with the other kata found in Goju ryu there is no clear line of descent from any kung fu style in Southern China. The typical school quoted is White Crane, but others have argued for Tiger or Dragon influences and one even for a Mantis / Cricket kung fu influence. Despite orthodox opinions (see The History of Karate by Morio Higaonna) that Kanryo Higaonna brought this form back from China, that is doubted by some. In fact, the kata may even have been being practiced on Okinawa before any of the conventional dates Higaonna is said to have sailed to China. There is a record that Seisho Aragaki publicly performed a kata named Chisaukin or Chishoukiun, both of which names have a similar pronunciation to Shisochin.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Shisochin

Seiunchin

Seiunchin (also sometimes pronounced Seiyunchin) means 'trapping battle' or 'control battle' and these translations refer to the close proximity combatants have to one another and where this form specializes. The kata therefore includes techniques to unbalance, throw and then grapple along with more orthodox karate techniques such as close-quarters striking waza, sweeps and take downs.

The opening moves are performed in a more relaxed, flowing manner than the more typical stop-start techniques seen in the first three kata studied (Gekisai Dai Ichi, Gekisai Dai Ni and Saifa). There is some speculation that this pattern may have its origins in the Chinese internal and Taoist-influenced art of Hsing I. This is in contrast to the more usual Buddhist origins of many of the kata of both Goju ryu and Okinawan karate in general. The movement at 1:21 - 1:22 is certainly highly reminiscent of a basic Hsing I technique.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Seiunchin

Saifa

Saifa is the first classical kata of Goju ryu karate. The first two kata studied (Gekisai Dai Ichi and Gekisai Dai Ni) were created by Goju founder Chojun Miyagi in 1940. The name of the kata means 'smash and tear' and it teaches techniques and concepts related to close quarters combat.

Traditionally it is thought that this kata was learned by Kanryo Higaonna from his teacher Ryu Ryu Ko while the former studied in China in the second half of the nineteenth century. This is the argument presented by Morio Higaonna in his book The History of Karate. At that time however 'things Chinese' carried with them a greater sense of value to Okinawan people and it may have been the case that this kata did not come directly from China but was only said to have done so. Or, that it was introduced from China at a later date by Chojun Miyagi and was not part of the original syllabus. Another idea is that Master Miyagi created the kata himself from his own insight and influenced by other forms.

Recent research has begun to suggest that Kanryo Higaonna may only have learned Sanchin, Sanseiru, Seisan and Suparinpei. Nathan Johnson in his book The Great Karate Myth examines this issue in more detail.

The origins of the form are further muddied by the lack of a reliable insight into the kung fu style it originated from. Accepted versions hold that it is from a Tiger or Crane style, but one researcher has put forward the argument that it may be derived from Lion kung fu.

The techniques in the kata teach the practitioner Folding, Grounding and Whipping. Folding refers to the practice of collapsing an opponent's limb at the joints, allowing it to be controlled. Grounding is the ability to 'sink into the floor' and then rebound up to generate more power. Whipping is the ability to deliver fast attacks with a whip-like motion. In addition, Gavin Mulholland argues in Four Shades of Black that this form is about learning how to break free of all manner of grabs and holds.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Saifa

Gekisai Dai Ni

Gekisai Dai Ni is almost a direct copy of Gekisai Dai Ichi but it introduces open-hand techniques, neko ashi dachi (cat stance) and takes an early look at evasion and gaining a superior angle to your opponent. Mawashi uke is also introduced here, and this block - combined with a grab and pull to unbalance an opponent - used in conjunction with evasion can generate tremendous positional advantage. Mawashi uke was described by Mas Oyama (Kyokushinkai) as being the most important block in karate.

The kata simply means 'to attack and destroy (version two)' (as opposed to Gekisai Dai Ichi, meaning 'to attack and destroy (version one') and it continues to work on the concept of developing an aggressive fighter, though one with a greater range of weapons to select from and one giving more thought to strategy.

This kata was also created by Chojun Miyagi in 1940 and through the process of coming up with this second form the original name of Gekisai Dai Ichi - Fukyugata Ni, as compared to Shoshin Nagamine's Fukyugata Ichi - was renounced and the two Gekisai kata came into being.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Gekisai Dai Ni

Gekisai Dai Ichi

Gekisai Dai Ichi was created by Goju ryu founder Chojun Miyagi in 1940 for the purpose of developing an 'introductory' form to help popularize the spread of his art and karate in general among younger students. Up until this time Sanchin had been regarded as being the alpha and omega - the beginning and the end - of Goju ryu karate (and to a great extent, it is still seen in that light) but this kata, along with its sister Gekisai Dai Ni, offered a more immediate entry into Goju ryu with a series of attacks and defenses that were easier to understand and master and which were, from the point of view of a general onlooker, more obviously combative and looked more like what karate 'should' look like.

The name means 'attack and smash (or destroy)'. It was originally called Fukyugata Ni (Master Shoshin Nagamine, also developing an appropriate entry-level kata for use in Okinawa, had in the same period created Fukyugata Ichi) but Miyagi changed the name when he developed a second kata (Gekisai Dai Ni) and wanted an appropriate name that allowed him to both distinguish his two kata while at the same time making sure the names reflected the fact that they were related.

The kata is linear in its approach and teaches the concept of forming an aggressive mentality and series of techniques to deal with an attack at longer range (traditionally Goju ryu kata emphasize close quarters combat).

Gekisai Dai Ichi performed by Master Morio Higaonna