Ryu Ryu Ko and the Origins of Okinawan Naha Te

Ryu Ryu Ko and the origins of Okinawan Naha te traces the techniques and philosophy that would go on to be labeled Naha te and then Goju ryu karate as introduced to Okinawa by Kanryo Higaonna directly from Fuzhou City, the political, economic and cultural center of Fujian province, towards the end of the nineteenth century. While living for an extended period of time in Fuzhou, Kanryo Higaonna studied Crane kung fu with a great master named Ryu Ryu Ko.

Kanryo Higaonna's father was killed in a fight when the boy was fourteen. Desirous of revenge, Higaonna decided he would travel to China to learn a fighting art before returning to his island home to avenge his father. The young Higaonna finally left Okinawa in 1867 at the age of 15.

Upon his arrival in Fuzhou, Higaonna stayed at the Uchinayaru, a hostel owned by an Okinawan and catering to Okinawans. The manager, Kanpu Tanmei, upon hearing of Higaonna's wish to study Chinese martial arts, was able to arrange an all-important formal and personal introduction to Ryu Ryu Ko. In those days it was very difficult to be accepted as a student of any martial arts, and Higaonna certainly 'lucked out' in meeting Kanpu Tanmei. After the introductions were over, the Chinese master accepted Higaonna as a student after the latter swore an oath of allegiance and loyalty.

Believed to be Ryu Ryu Ko.

Ryu Ryu Ko and the Origins of Okinawan Naha Te

The relationship between Ryu Ryu Ko and Higaonna was more complicated than the modern day teacher-student arrangement that many, if not all, reading this will have. First of all, as part payment and part a test of character, Higaonna was required to help his teacher cut and collect bamboo. Only when Higaonna had proved himself diligent, hard working and responsible enough to learn a fighting art did his training properly begin. The master would use this bamboo to make various goods, such as baskets and furniture, to support himself. Originally Ryu Ryu Ko had been a member of the aristocratic class through his family and it was his social standing that allowed him to attend the southern Shaolin Temple in Fujian Province. Owing to political upheaval at the time, he and his family had little choice but to blend into the background and hide their aristocratic status. As a result of this Higaonna's teacher worked at various jobs throughout his life to disguise his social origins.

Reports describe Ryu Ryu Ko as being tall, around six feet in height, with an athletic physique that kept him slim and muscular and he was particularly famous for his strong grip. One anecdote notes that not only could the master crush bamboo, but he could also pull it apart using his fingers. Personality wise he was considered warm-hearted, though stern when teaching.

Another story draws our attention to the lack of rigidity in teaching kata and points to variations between different masters. Another practitioner of sanchin in Fuzhou was Wan Shin Za. Wan Shin Za used a stance in sanchin that was both wider and longer than that employed by Ryu Ryu Ko.

Speaking of sanchin we find evidence here of the severity of training promoted by Ryu Ryu Ko. While instructing Kanryo Higaonna, the founder of Naha te, the Okinawan would be subjected to extreme shime, or slapping and striking, while executing sanchin kata. This body conditioning, intended to toughen both the body and mind, is something that Goju ryu karate remains famous for today and is often witnessed in demonstrations.

Ryu Ryu Ko appears to have been a master of Whooping Crane kung fu (there is no definite evidence but he was almost certainly a master of a form of Crane kung fu), and he would teach a broad spectrum of martial arts, including a long list of kata, kakie (pushing hands practice), ude tanren (arm conditioning), ne waza (ground fighting), hojo undo (supplementary training, including the use of rudimentary weight training equipment), the long and short swords (now seemingly lost to Goju ryu karate), and the bo (staff). One aspect of training familiar to Okinawan and Japanese karateka not mentioned is the use of the makiwara (striking post), raising the obvious question as to whether or not this was a supplementary training aid indigenous to Okinawa itself.

Beyond martial technique, Ryu Ryu Ko also taught herbal medicine and I would suspect that, at least in part, this knowledge may have come from the Bubishi, the 'manual' of Okinawan karate that arrived from China through, it seems, various sources. It can be seen that the master gave well-rounded instruction to his students, most especially Kanryo Higaonna, who studied in Fuzhou for approximately 14 years, learning both martial arts and herbal medicine. Higaonna returned to Okinawa in around 1881. Living in Naha, near the port, the martial art he taught became known as Naha te. This would be the forerunner of Goju ryu karatedo.

It is believed that Ryu Ryu Ko died in February, 1930.

The History of Karate by Morio Higaonna

The History of Karate by Morio Higaonna - Book Review covering the history of Naha te / Goju ryu and the life of Chojun Miyagi. Although this book is now somewhat old, I recently got a copy of it from a friend and decided to review it based on the strength of the material presented. That said, the first important thing to note is that the title of the book is somewhat deceptive. The sub-title is 'Okinawan Goju Ryu' and that is precisely what is covered in the book. It is less 'The History of Karate' and far more 'The History of Goju Ryu Karate'. That shouldn't dissuade anyone interested in the history of karate or the Okinawan arts in general from reading it, but the book will be far more appealing to Goju ryu practitioners than anyone else.

The contents of the book are a blend of historical facts and collected anecdotes. The facts are far more appealing than the anecdotes as the latter can be somewhat vague in painting an accurate picture and at least one story is clearly made up and this unfortunately casts a shadow of doubt over the rest of the anecdotal evidence. The story in question relates to Chojun Miyagi and the claim that one night during the Battle of Okinawa he was strafed by a single US fighter plane but managed to escape any harm by running in a zig-zag pattern. I would be dubious about the story even if it was claimed to have happened during the day, but the fact that a carrier-based plane was flying around at night is clearly rubbish. I appreciate that in East Asia in particular great reverence is given to elders and teachers and former students are no doubt well-meaning in attempting to portray their sensei as being the bees knees, but it makes it difficult sometimes to distinguish between what is fact and what is not.

Morio Higaonna has done a great job of presenting the information and where he is lacking in conclusive proof he is happy to present all theories. One such instance is his frank admittance that, after research in Fuzhou prefecture, it is impossible to determine which Chinese kung fu / wushu style in particular Goju ryu is descended from.

The History of Karate briefly covers the historical background that led to the formation of various karate styles (most notably the military dominance of Okinawa by the Shimazu clan from 1609 onwards) and then jumps into the Goju ryu history proper with Kanryo Higaonna's trip to Fuzhou to train with Ryu Ryu Ko. Kanryo Higaonna (no relation to the author and famed karate master Morio Higaonna) returned to Okinawa and began teaching. One student in particular stood out, Chojun Miyagi.

Much of the book is devoted to the life of Chojun Miyagi and how he formalized and spread what developed from Naha te and came to be known as Goju ryu karate around Okinawa and finally to mainland Japan. A lot of great, insightful information is presented though as mentioned above, I recommend treating at last some of it with a degree of skepticism. There are some gems though, such as details on Chojun Miyagi's trip to Hawaii and his discovery and adoption of the kongo ken training device.

The book also covers the lives of Jin'an Shinzato (Miyagi's top student before Shinzato's death during the Battle of Okinawa) and An'ichi Miyagi (a primary teacher of Morio Higaonna).

This brings me to the most glaring omission in The History of Karate. After the death of Chojun Miyagi in 1953 it was Ei'ichi Miyazato, Miyagi's most senior post-war student, who established the Jundokan dojo in Okinawa to continue the teaching of Goju ryu. Despite this Morio Higaonna barely mentions Miyazato and there is certainly no focus given to this late master aside from a short interview at the back of the book. To be fair to Higaonna, Miyazato admitted in an interview that he had been approached to participate in the book, but still I feel a lot more could have been done to detail the life of head of the Jundokan. Afterall, a tremendous amount of information was presented on Miyagi, Kanryo Higaonna and even Ryu Ryu Ko without interview access. Without going into the politics of it all it seems that Morio Higaonna championed the idea that An'ichi Miyagi - Higaonna's principle teacher through much of his life - was the true inheritor of the legacy left by Chojun Miyagi. Unfortunately this is reflected in the book and to an extent it does read as if Morio Higaonna is attempting to legitimize any claim he may make as being the next in line of direct succession from Ryu Ryu Ko to Kanryo Higaonna to Chojun Miyagi to An'ichi Miyagi and then to the author. In this respect, the latter history of more modern Goju ryu does not appear to be being presented as objectively as the earlier history.

The History of Karate: Conclusion

All said though, The History of Karate is a great read and well worth delving into. Various other karate masters are mentioned to a greater or lesser extent and anyone with an interest in the overall shift from karate as a fighting art taught to select students to a more popularized version will find this book of value. Needless to say, for Goju ryu trainees, this should still be considered essential reading despite some bias in the presentation of evidence and opinion.

Sanchin

Sanchin is perhaps the oldest kata to be found in all the different karate styles. Older versions can be clearly still seen in Southern Chinese kung fu styles (unlike many other karate kata which claim to have originated in China but which cannot be proven to have done so). The kata means 'three battles' and what this means precisely is unknown, though a common interpretation is that it refers to the 'battle' to control one's body, mind and spirit. In Chinese the kata is called saam ching and may trace its roots back to the Southern Shaolin Temple and perhaps, as author Nathan Johnson suggests in Barefoot Zen, to Bodhidharma himself, or at least to his inspiration as the founder of Ch'an / Zen Buddhism.

Whether Buddhist in origin or not, the kata also incorporates Taoist 'Immortality' ritual aspects and emphasizes forced breathing in conjunction with a distinctive pelvic movement whereby the pelvic bone is retracted on the in breath and pushed forward on the out breath.

The Goju ryu version of the kata performed by Master Morio Higaonna emphasizes dynamic tension and this is tested - sometimes severely - by heavy slapping. This may not be healthy (and in my opinion, it isn't) as the body is simultaneously starving the muscles of oxygen (through the tension) while also depriving the body as a while of oxygen (through the slowed, forced breathing). Author Mark Bishop draws attention to the fact that several high ranking Okinawan karateka have died at relatively young ages (and consider that Okinawan people currently have the highest average life expectancy anywhere in the world) of complications relating to their heart condition. He himself eventually quit the practice of the kata for this reason and I have also read that this practice is rejected by Chinese martial artists who execute their similar form without the forced breathing and dynamic tension. This kata is seen to represent the 'hard' aspect of Goju, with Tensho being the softer side.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Sanchin

Tensho

The first part of the name of Tensho, ten, can mean 'revolving', 'rotating' or 'turning', and sho means 'palm', so the name could mean 'revolving palm', 'rotating palm' or 'turning palm'.

This form is definitely one that Chojun Miyagi created after he returned from training in China. He presented it in 1921 as a 'softer' version of the 'harder' Sanchin. It was to represent the ju (soft) aspect of Goju ryu karate. Precisely where Master Miyagi got his inspiration from though is a matter of some conjecture. Conventional history tells us that it developed out of Rokusho, a White Crane kung fu form. Five of the six hand positions detailed in the Bubishi - The Six Hands of the Shaolin Style - occur in the form. These were hand positions used to deliver accurate blows that could be deadly.

Another theory though is that Master Miyagi based it on a form - unknown at the present time - that he learned while in Fuzhou or that it is based on something (also presently unknown if true) he studied with Master Gokenki, a White Crane master actively teaching on Okinawa between 1912-1940.

Another idea (that I came across from Kancho Nenad Djurdjevic, based in Australia) is that the kata amalgamated and supplemented techniques that were practiced individually as 'basic' techniques at the Kodo training hall located in Fuzhou and used by Okinawan ex-pats. These movements, while no doubt based on kung fu techniques, were isolated from forms and simply practiced as we perform kihon today. This is a very interesting theory and from the information available it seems to me that an investigation of some of the Shotokan kata from this point of view may be worth undertaking.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Tensho

Suparinpei

The name Suparinpei - 108 - indicates a Buddhist influence once again on Okinawan karate, via Southern Chinese kung fu styles and, it is maintained, the Southern China Shaolin Temple. Other Goju ryu forms that supposedly relate to Buddhist thought are Sanseru (36) and Sepai (18). In Shotokan there is Nijushiho (24) and Gojushiho Dai (54). I take the view however that the number 108 itself is not specific to Buddhism and is a borrowed number from a much more ancient form of numerology related to the precession of the equinoxes in which 72 is the prime number (my notes on Nijushiho in particular explain this theory in greater detail). 108 is related to 72 in the following way: (72/2) + 72 = 108. The kata does not in fact have 108 movements, hence a strong case being made for the influence of Buddhist thought.

This form is the longest form and is regarded as being the hardest to perform and perfect. It is believed to have been one of the original four brought back from Fuzhou by Kanryo Higaonna and taught to Chojun Miyagi. Miyagi sensei may have created the name of this form as it is thought that it is derived from Pechurin (100 Techniques), a kata still practiced in its original form with its original name in the To'on ryu. On the other hand author George Alexander presents evidence that the kata was performed in 1867 for a group of visiting Chinese dignitaries by Tomimura Peichin. Alexander also suggests that the form was known prior to that in Kume village. This isn't to suggest that Master Higaonna didn't learn it in China, only that he wasn't the first Okinawan to know it. It is also therefore possible that he learned it as Pechurin before the later (possible) name change by Chojun Miyagi.

The kata is a White Crane kung fu style form with elements of Tiger boxing included. White Crane tends to be more defensive in nature and makes greater use of speed, evasion and the delivery of accurate strikes to precise targets.

Master Higaonna performing Suparinpei

Seisan

The name Seisan means '13' but it is often understood as '13 Hands'. '13' in isolation is connected to good luck and prosperity in China which may account for the naming of the form, though another explanation is that the figure refers to the number of non-repeating techniques found in the original (this kata is not only found in Goju ryu karate but several other styles as well, including Shotokan in which it is named Hangetsu).

This kata is however believed to be one of the four originals brought back directly from Fuzhou by Kanryo Higaonna after learning it from his teacher Ryu Ryu Ko. However, a different version existed in Okinawa prior to this as it is known that Seisho Aragaki (an early instructor of Master Higaonna) was teaching this form as early as 1867. It is believed that the different versions trace their lineage back to the Yong Chun White Crane kung fu style. Some have detected a Hsing I influence. This form (also known as Sesan) is the primary kata that author Nathan Johnson argues in The Great Karate Myth is intended to be a sai form, but performed without the weapons. This is supposedly more apparent in the Uechi ryu version.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Seisan

Kururunfa

Literally the name of Kururunfa means 'to detain for a long time and suddenly rip apart' and it marks a return to the conceptual approach to the study of kata promulgated by Gavin Mulholland in his book Four Shades of Black. This kata is particularly notable for the greater use of the hips to generate power, particularly, in this kata, with the use of open handed movements that can be used in a variety of ways.

This is another Goju ryu kata that suffers from serious doubt as to whether or not Kanryo Higaonna actually brought it back from China or if it was later learned by Chojun Miyagi or even created by the latter master from a synthesis of Chinese and Okinawan influences. Given the latter opinion, it is unknown precisely which school of kung fu the form originated from; possibly Dragon style, but (and like the other Goju ryu kata) no one knows for sure.

The form is mesmerizing to watch and very stylistic, combining slower movements with rapid bursts of action and high, fluid stances with low, stable stances. This kata very much reflects both the hard (go) and soft (ju) of the style.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Kururunfa

Sepai

Sepai (also known as Seipai) translates at '18 hands' and again we see a reference to the prime precessional number of 72 (18 x 4 = 72). This is discussed in more detail in Nijushiho, Gojushiho Dai (from Shotokan karate) and Sanseru (Goju ryu). While orthodox history maintains that this is one of the forms Kanryo Higaonna brought back from Fuzhou after studying with Ryu Ryu Ko, modern (and less partisan) research now holds that this form did not originate with Kanryo Higaonna.

It is also unclear which school of kung fu it originates from. Again, orthodox opinion holds that it comes from the Crane or Tiger schools but there is a suggestion it may be from the Dragon school. The form does resemble to an extent Nipaipo, as created by Shito ryu founder Kenwa Mabuni, and which itself was influenced by Neipai, a White Crane form taught by the famous Gokenki.

The kata builds on the concept of multi-directional fighting introduced in Shisochin and Sanseru while introducing new techniques such as the hiraken (one knuckle fist - an excellent means to attack vital points or otherwise make pinpoint attacks).

Master Morio Higaonna performing Sepai

Sanseru

Sanseru sometimes comes under the name Sanseiru, but both versions are acceptable and mean the same thing: 36 hands. Supposedly this has Buddhist significance, as have all kata with a number of moves related to the figure 108. I have put forward an argument that the origins of this numerology stretch back further in time and pre-exist Buddhism, being in fact related to the precessional number 72 (which in turn influenced Buddhism). Check out other articles on Nijushiho (24) and Gojushiho Dai (54). Sanseru is also known informally as the Dragon form.

The kata - and here I reject orthodox opinion that Kanryo Higaonna brought all the Goju ryu kata back from China save Gekisai Dai Ichi, Gekisai Dai Ni and Tensho - is believed to have been one of the original four first introduced by Kanryo Higaonna and learned from his teacher Ryu Ryu Ko. That said, it is debatable as to whether or not Chojun Miyagi himself learned the kata directly from Master Higaonna. The reason for this is that Miyagi's senior, Juhatsu Kyoda, learned a variation of the form directly from Master Higaonna while Master Miyagi was away from Okinawa on military service. Kyoda's version and Miyagi's version are quite different and that suggests a different teacher. It is possible that Master Miyagi learned the kata from a Chinese practitioner directly while in Fuzhou in 1915.

The kata is highly asymmetrical, especially with the several kicking techniques covered, and the practitioner may like to learn to perform the kata with both sides of his body.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Sanseru

Shisochin

Shisochin means 'four directional battle' and the form seems to take its name from the four palm heel strikes delivered in different directions seen in the video below from 0:28-0:34. The kata covers a lot of ground though and the practitioner is constantly moving in different directions throughout.

As with the other kata found in Goju ryu there is no clear line of descent from any kung fu style in Southern China. The typical school quoted is White Crane, but others have argued for Tiger or Dragon influences and one even for a Mantis / Cricket kung fu influence. Despite orthodox opinions (see The History of Karate by Morio Higaonna) that Kanryo Higaonna brought this form back from China, that is doubted by some. In fact, the kata may even have been being practiced on Okinawa before any of the conventional dates Higaonna is said to have sailed to China. There is a record that Seisho Aragaki publicly performed a kata named Chisaukin or Chishoukiun, both of which names have a similar pronunciation to Shisochin.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Shisochin

Seiunchin

Seiunchin (also sometimes pronounced Seiyunchin) means 'trapping battle' or 'control battle' and these translations refer to the close proximity combatants have to one another and where this form specializes. The kata therefore includes techniques to unbalance, throw and then grapple along with more orthodox karate techniques such as close-quarters striking waza, sweeps and take downs.

The opening moves are performed in a more relaxed, flowing manner than the more typical stop-start techniques seen in the first three kata studied (Gekisai Dai Ichi, Gekisai Dai Ni and Saifa). There is some speculation that this pattern may have its origins in the Chinese internal and Taoist-influenced art of Hsing I. This is in contrast to the more usual Buddhist origins of many of the kata of both Goju ryu and Okinawan karate in general. The movement at 1:21 - 1:22 is certainly highly reminiscent of a basic Hsing I technique.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Seiunchin

Gekisai Dai Ni

Gekisai Dai Ni is almost a direct copy of Gekisai Dai Ichi but it introduces open-hand techniques, neko ashi dachi (cat stance) and takes an early look at evasion and gaining a superior angle to your opponent. Mawashi uke is also introduced here, and this block - combined with a grab and pull to unbalance an opponent - used in conjunction with evasion can generate tremendous positional advantage. Mawashi uke was described by Mas Oyama (Kyokushinkai) as being the most important block in karate.

The kata simply means 'to attack and destroy (version two)' (as opposed to Gekisai Dai Ichi, meaning 'to attack and destroy (version one') and it continues to work on the concept of developing an aggressive fighter, though one with a greater range of weapons to select from and one giving more thought to strategy.

This kata was also created by Chojun Miyagi in 1940 and through the process of coming up with this second form the original name of Gekisai Dai Ichi - Fukyugata Ni, as compared to Shoshin Nagamine's Fukyugata Ichi - was renounced and the two Gekisai kata came into being.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Gekisai Dai Ni

Gekisai Dai Ichi

Gekisai Dai Ichi was created by Goju ryu founder Chojun Miyagi in 1940 for the purpose of developing an 'introductory' form to help popularize the spread of his art and karate in general among younger students. Up until this time Sanchin had been regarded as being the alpha and omega - the beginning and the end - of Goju ryu karate (and to a great extent, it is still seen in that light) but this kata, along with its sister Gekisai Dai Ni, offered a more immediate entry into Goju ryu with a series of attacks and defenses that were easier to understand and master and which were, from the point of view of a general onlooker, more obviously combative and looked more like what karate 'should' look like.

The name means 'attack and smash (or destroy)'. It was originally called Fukyugata Ni (Master Shoshin Nagamine, also developing an appropriate entry-level kata for use in Okinawa, had in the same period created Fukyugata Ichi) but Miyagi changed the name when he developed a second kata (Gekisai Dai Ni) and wanted an appropriate name that allowed him to both distinguish his two kata while at the same time making sure the names reflected the fact that they were related.

The kata is linear in its approach and teaches the concept of forming an aggressive mentality and series of techniques to deal with an attack at longer range (traditionally Goju ryu kata emphasize close quarters combat).

Gekisai Dai Ichi performed by Master Morio Higaonna

Four Shades of Black

Four Shades of Black was written byGavin Mulholland, a 6th Dan in Okinawan Goju ryu karate and Chief Instructor of the Daigaku Karate Kai, centered in London, England. He began training in the 1970s under Kyoshi Kim Roberts and continues to train with his teacher to this day. He has traveled to train and teach extensively and has incorporated innumerable approaches and ideas into his core art of Goju ryu.

His training has been tempered with years working security for a variety of locations and he progressed to becoming an instructor for a leading security company.

Gavin has embraced the rise of MMA (and has clearly worked a lot of inspiration from this source into his training, as will be revealed) and one of his students - Neil Grove - became a heavyweight MMA champion in the UK and progressed onto the UFC. He fought in UFC 95 but lost by submission. He later fought in Bellator (Season 3) and made it to the heavyweight final but again lost to a submission. Gavin trains other successful fighters who also use Goju ryu as their base style.

So onto the book...

Four Shades of Black

The first thing to say is that Four Shades of Black is without a doubt the most professional and attractive martial arts book I have seen to date. It has a sophisticated, coffee table look and feel to it. The text is white on a black background and all the (excellent) photographs are in black and white. Clearly someone put a great deal of thought into the design and it comes across. The only disadvantage is if you are like me and want to make notes directly on the page...you will need a white ink pen.

A more general comment with regard to content is that the book deals with four Goju ryu karate kata, these being Gekisai Dai Ichi, Gekisai Dai Ni, Saifa and Seiunchin. However, it is not a book about applications (bunkai). Instead, Mulholland interprets each kata from the point of view of what concepts it is introducing and, once the concept is isolated, he details various training drills you can use to practice the central idea (hence the inclusion of MMA-style drills).

Put simply, Mulholland argues in Four Shades of Black that the core concept of, say, Gekisai Dai Ichi is to 'attack and smash'. Therefore, rather than simply practice the movements of the kata (only), the practitioner instead practices how to 'attack and smash' using any technique he deems relevant, whether it features in the kata or not.

Four Shades of Black is split into four parts which are further divided into eleven chapters. The chapters concerning each kata follow a similar formula of a short, paragraph-long story to 'set the scene', introducing the kata and the principles, detailing the movements of the kata and then discussing the basic techniques to accompany the kata, what bunkai practice should concentrate on (there are very few direct examples of bunkai), and ideas for padwork drills, partner drills and conditioning. The latter two sections of each chapter of Four Shades of Black really capture the eclectic approach Gavin Mulholland takes. He incorporates Thai pad drills with traditional hojo undo conditioning methods.

Mulholland starts Four Shades of Black proper with an introduction of his subject. He holds the idea that combative practice always included elements that were outside the scope of the kata, with two obvious exclusions being weapons practice and grappling. Mulholland doesn't cite any evidence for this but his ideas are in close accord with what I know about the Bubishi, the 'Bible' of karate which takes a very hardcore approach to combat that is all inclusive with regard to empty hands combat (but doesn't discuss weapons combat) and describes a kung fu method - which heavily influenced Okinawan karate - very similar to what we see nowadays in MMA.

Four Shades of Black reinforces this point with the argument that the kata may not directly stipulate the use of, for example, grappling, but the forms allude to multiple ranges of combat. Mulholland feels that the kata, both in technique and concept, are designed to point you in the direction of your next area of study. The kata in this sense are an introduction to, and a record of, an area of combative research that were fully intended to be supplemented with additional training. I would interject here that traditionally practitioners would spend up to three years on a single kata. Quite why is a mystery, but if we provisionally accept Mulholland's stance and consider the three year period anew then it begins to make more sense. It would not have been the movements in the kata themselves which needed three years to be mastered, but the entire concept and the investigation of multiple techniques related to that concept that were practiced.

Mulholland compares this approach to that of a university professor. The professor doesn't so much tell you what the answer is; his role is more akin to leading you along a path of investigation by advising you on how to best spend your time (reading) books and journals that are related to your main area of study. There is no answer as such; he leads you to finding your own (well-informed) opinion.

Another very good point that Mulholland makes in Four Shades of Black is the idea that ultimately the karateka aims to protect not only himself but the attacker as well. I would like to refer you here to the work of Nathan Johnson who, first, has argued in his books that the kata Naifuanchin / Tekki is in fact a record of stand-up grappling techniques in the form of escapes, reversals and counter-locks, and second, maintains that these techniques were used in civil defense to control, but not 'beat up' an aggressor.

Mulholland next discusses Sanchin briefly, noting that this kata - along with Tensho - is suited for directing one's attention inwards, as opposed to the four kata that comprise the main area of study in Four Shades of Black which direct the practitioner's attention outwards. Like so many senior Goju ryu karateka Mulholland sees Sanchin as being a profound form that teaches 'all the principles and strategies you need to know.' It is not to be ignored; rather, it should be better understood through the study of the material and kata outlined in Four Shades of Black.

Gekisai Dai Ichi

The first kata examined in Four Shades of Black is Gekisai Dai Ichi. A literal translation of this kata name is 'Attack and smash number one' and at both a technical and conceptual this is, according to Mulholland, precisely what it is designed to teach. The purpose of the kata is to develop an aggressive fighter who is able to use basic punches, kicks and strikes, singularly or in combination, at long range. It is important to note again that Mulholland does not restrict the practice of the concept of the kata to only those techniques found within the kata. He asks the reader to work on punches, kicks, elbows and sweeps while (for the time being) staying away from evasion, trapping and so on.

Mulholland argues that this is important because the techniques must match the concept being taught and vice versa. He gives a very interesting example, related to the rise of MMA, and demonstrating a point well. Imagine a new student starting karate. The student notices that in a 'real fight' (such as in the UFC) a single style is not enough. Therefore the student 'tags on' some aikido. While this may not appear to be much of a problem, Mulholland argues that in fact it is. The reason is that at a conceptual level karate and aikido - at least at the level of a beginner - are not a good match. Gekisai Dai Ichi is fostering an aggressive mindset while aikido is teaching a student to harmonize with a force. This isn't to say one art is better than the next, but they are different at both the technical and conceptual levels.

Mulholland goes on to detail some pad work drills in Four Shades of Black and again notes that the pad work should help a student understand and express the concept of the kata (to attack and smash). Therefore the pad work should be done with full intensity to the point of exhaustion. Nothing subtle (though skill isn't to be ignored), just concentrating on developing strong techniques delivered in combinations with an aggressive mindset.

Partner drills follow the same plan: kata concept first, kata technique second. An example given in Four Shades of Black is a lead punch - reverse punch - round kick to the thigh combination delivered against a partner. Obviously this kind of combination is not seen in the actual kata but it is a tried and tested combination effective in 'attacking and smashing' and is regularly seen in MMA bouts. It doesn't use advanced techniques and could be practiced at a slow pace by most students, I would say, by the end of their first lesson.

The final section of this chapter is on conditioning and here - Mulholland demonstrating his acceptance of both the traditional and the modern - the author recommends the use of a makiwara striking post, partly to condition the knuckles, but mostly to develop good, powerful form. Mulholland doesn't dismiss bag work but - and I am reading between the lines here - I think he would recommend not using gloves in this practice to prepare the fists for the reality of combat and contact.

Gekisai Dai Ni

The next chapter of Four Shades of Black introduces Gekisai Dai Ni. Mulholland begins by noting that this kata is very similar to Gekisai Dai Ichi, both in style and concept, with the addition of evasion as a concept being introduced at this stage. Here Mulholland wants the student to study not just evasion, but how to 'receive' a technique to gain a positional and tactical advantage. Evasion then is not simply about running away or getting out of the way. It is about avoiding an attack in such a way that you (the receiver) are in a stronger position from which to launch your own counter.

After detailing the kata Mulholland then takes a look at how the concept (evade to gain a strategic advantage then attack and smash) can be trained in a variety of ways. Kihon, as detailed in Four Shades of Black needs to build on what was learned in relation to Gekisai Dai Ichi by introducing open-handed attacking and blocking techniques, taking a 45 degree angle when advantageous and evading an attack into neko ashi dachi. Similarly, the bunkai need to reflect an element of evasion and a wider variety of different attacks and blocks.

The conditioning exercises detailed in Four Shades of Black continue to develop the fighter's ability to 'attack and smash' effectively with power while minimizing the risk of damage to the attacking tool. The correct alignment of the knuckles should be emphasized and a strong structure can be generated by doing push-ups on the knuckles. The makiwara should continue to feature heavily in conditioning and heavy bag work will introduce a rounded surface (as opposed to the flat surface of a makiwara) to further test your ability to consistently deliver a solid punch. In addition, pad work should now introduce an element of evasion by having the trainer simulate punches and other attacks with the pads forcing the trainee to react.

The next area Mulholland discusses is kakie, or pushing hands, which he sees as a fundamental and very useful skill to develop. There are some basic instructions given in Four Shades of Black but they are not extensive and may not make complete sense to someone unfamiliar with this practice method. For greater information on the relevance of pushing hands to karate please refer to the work of Nathan Johnson.

The conditioning section of this chapter of Four Shades of Black introduces the chi ishi. This is a heavy stone - circular more often than not - attached to the end of a long wooden handle. Various exercises can be done with this piece of equipment - which Mulholland rates as second only to the makiwara - but instructions are unfortunately vague here and the reader will need to refer to an external source for more information. Mulholland wants the conditioning at this stage to concentrate on developing arm and wrist strength.

Saifa

Saifa is the next kata detailed in Four Shades of Black. The name means 'smash and tear' and according to Mulholland this kata takes combat to a range where you can be grabbed; therefore the techniques and concepts introduced are for breaking free of grabs and holds. The basic concept covered is: To break free of a hold use strikes and distractions then apply your whole body to a weak point in the grip in order to escape.

Following a demonstration of Saifa Four Shades of Black next introduces the relevant kihon. In this case it is not so much that the techniques are different from those learned in Gekisai Dai Ichi and Gekisai Dai Ni, but more that the same techniques are applied in a different manner; in this case to break free of a grab. For example, a low block which may have previously been used to block a kick is now used to smash into an opponent's arm that is gripping your wrist. Mulholland sees this as part of the beauty of kihon - that the same technique can be applied in multiple different ways according to the needs or understanding of the student.

For once Mulholland next details some actual bunkai (rather than leaving us with ideas as he does in other chapters). These examples are informative and welcome but not extensive.

Moving onto padwork, Four Shades of Black introduces some good ideas. As Saifa is about escaping a grab the padwork needs to reflect this and the student should therefore be initially prevented from striking. Instead the pad work drill should start with an escape before executing techniques on the pads. Another variation is to have a third person hold the student; once the escape has been effected the student turns to the second student who is holding the pads and executes the 'smash' part of the application. There are some very good ideas here to help you develop and keep pad work interesting and relevant.

The chapter on Saifa in Four Shades of Black continues by introducing or re-examining a multitude of different supplementary training techniques. Mulholland encourages the karateka to continue with the practice of kakie by making it more challenging by introducing more patterns of movement. He then goes on to look at throws (nage waza) - an area of combat the author clearly has a great of respect for - but from the point of view of karate: precede a throw with a strike and make an effort to unbalance an opponent first.

An interesting practice method is next detailed. The trainee stands in the center of 3-4 of his partners who take turns to grip the trainee's arms or wrists from which the trainee must flow from one escape to the next. Mulholland here writes that 'This is a fantastic drill and you will notice a lot of Aikido-style movements along with a lot of classical positioning.' This struck me as being paradoxical given what he had written earlier (and detailed above) on the problems associated with studying as art (like aikido) which has fundamentally different concepts with regard to fighting as compared to karate. It also isn't clear how this drill is supposed to train the practitioner to be able to 'smash and tear' which is the concept supposedly under study. This however is a very small point and doesn't detract from the content. Following this exercise there is an interesting drill for dealing with surprise attacks.

The conditioning section of this chapter of Four Shades of Black is more extensive than before. Mulholland discusses three training devices: the chi ishi (already introduced), the nigiri game and the makiage kigu. As with earlier chapters, actual training techniques are not described but the chi ishi is praised. In this case I would be interested to know how Mulholland evaluates the kettlebell.

in comparison to the chi ishi. The new device introduced is the nigiri game. These are gripping jars that stretch and strengthen one's fingers by progressively filling the jars with more and heavier substances. These jars can also be held in stationary positions, which leads Mulholland to discuss the pros and cons of isometric exercises as compared to isotonic training (lifts done against resistance).

The makiage kigu is a wrist roller that comprises of a handle with an attached rope to which is attached a weight. The user rolls the handle to pull up the weight and then repeats as necessary. This is done with the arms held straight out in an extended position, making the whole procedure much tougher.

The final section is about tameshiwara, or Trial by Breaking. This is the only part of Four Shades of Black that I humbly disagreed with. Mulholland presents a good argument for why breaking techniques (against wood and even concrete) should be included in gradings (but not, interestingly, as a part of regular training...he doesn't believe breaking should be practiced as such, only the constituent elements necessary to develop to execute a good break). I certainly agree that the fists and other body parts used as weapons need to be conditioned, but have very different ideas on whether or not breaking should be undertaken or not. I feel that destroying is less important than building.

Seiunchin

As Four Shades of Black draws to a close the final kata in focus is Seiunchin. The name means 'trapping / control battle' and the movements and the concept focus on close quarters combat. Mulholland introduces one of numerous interesting points here: this 'trapping battle' can just as easily occur while rolling on the ground as it can standing up. It is harder to use body dynamics to augment your power while on the ground, but still, many of the same movements can be used and indeed new applications of old techniques can be found when the fight has moved to the ground. The author though is careful to point out that in his experience most fights that pit a skilled fighter against an opponent who is unskilled rarely go to the ground. He lists statistical evidence to support his point and contrasts this with the chances of two unskilled fighters going to the ground (a much higher chance). The conclusion reached in Four Shades of Black is to therefore not place too much expectancy on going to the ground but to be prepared for it just in case. This is what Seiunchin is designed to do.

The bunkai section of this book offers more in the way of direct examples than previous chapters and here Mulholland demonstrates how the same technique can be applied while standing up or while in a grappling situation. These comparisons are very interesting and while not exhaustive provide enough examples to get the reader thinking and experimenting.

As expected, the section on pad work focuses on uses karate techniques against pads in a grappling situation. As usual, Mulholland is here presenting more of an idea than actual drills. Partner drills are next introduced in Four Shades of Black and here previous training routines can be understood as linking together to prepare the fighter for grappling. By now kakie should have been a regular feature of practice and in a grappling situation it is vital that the fighter be able to react by touch rather than sight. At this stage kakie should still be practiced though now with a view to closing the distance with your partner. Throws should also be practiced, as should co-operative and free grappling. Co-operative grappling involves one person allowing the partner to practice the technique under discussion by presenting - on purpose - opportunities to do so.

Conditioning introduces the kongo ken, an excellent supplementary training device to improve one's strength for grappling.

As Four Shades of Black draws to a close Mulholland reviews what he has written and encourages the student to look more closely at the kata. The book ends with a nice story on the importance of avoiding fighting as much as you can and this is followed by a good glossary.

Summary

This is a great book and highly recommended. It is itself very conceptual in approach and delivers more in the way of concepts and guidance than it does technique. It will open your eyes to the wide range of applications that can be found for karate techniques and will give you plenty to think about. Obviously the main content is more suitable for Goju ryu practitioners but anyone of any style would benefit from reading this book as many of the ideas are easily applicable to any fighting system.