Karate as Dynamic Zen

My own background in training lies for the most part in Shotokan karate (supplemented heavily with Bruce Lee's Jeet Kune Do, Filipino kali and Rickson Gracie Jiu Jitsu). Like most people starting out I was primarily interested in learning how to take care of myself in a fight while also being heavily influenced by the romantic images of Okinawa portrayed in the movie The Karate Kid II which was a very popular movie that played a huge part in inspiring me to head to my local dojo. This was not my earliest experience with Japanese culture but it was the decisive one and through its influence I have been living in Japan for the last 18 years.

I am heavily influenced by the philosophy of the Zen monk Takuan Soho and his work in The Unfettered Mind and have traced the transmission of this teaching through the last four centuries. As a result of this I take a concepts-first approach to my practice of karate and seek to uncover ever more obscure points that govern the execution of form, or technique.

I first explored this some 20 years or so ago publishing an article entitled The Concept of Shotokan Karate (now available on Amazon Kindle) but since then my investigation of the relationship between Zen and martial arts has gone deeper than I originally thought would perhaps be possible. As a result of this I will also be exploring how it is that a chosen combative art form can lead a practitioner to experience a state of "satori", or realization (often popularly described as enlightenment, though I prefer to avoid that term).

Karate as Dynamic Zen

In my early training and research I became exposed to various Eastern spiritual traditions, especially Indian Buddhism, Chinese Daoism and, of course, Japanese Zen Buddhism. I was immediately attracted to the idea of viewing karate as a kind of moving Zen (what I now call a dynamic form of meditation) and delved into various books and articles eventually coming across the biography of Yamaoka Tesshu and the translation of The Unfettered Mind by Takuan Soho. These texts have absorbed a huge amount of my time and attention now for more than 20 years and my research has expanded into fields such as neuro-science, history, archaeology, psychology, mythology and comparative religion to name the primary areas of my current interest.

Starting with the question - from an academic point of view - as to how a martial art (Shotokan karate in my case) can lead a practitioner to an experience of satori my research has led me to the tentative thesis that what is happening at the time of spiritual realization is a sudden, but absolute, shift in brain dominance from the controlling left brain hemisphere to the right brain hemisphere (subordinate to the left hemisphere for most of us during our waking hours). In this way we let go (completely) of our sense of linear time, of notions of self and other, of here and there, of now, then and later, all characteristics of how the left brain hemisphere understands and represents the world, and replace these usually-dominant thoughts with the sense that there are no divisions and no limitations.

Even more tentatively, I am absorbed with the idea that for a few millions of years the default pre-human and human condition was to be right brain hemisphere dominant and that our shift to left brain dominance has occurred relatively recently, perhaps by a severe change in diet, and reinforced by the creation of the spoken language and reading and writing (which were themselves made possible by the theorized shift in brain dominance). This, I hypothesize, is the Original Mind of pure consciousness, free of defilement and the conceptual world.

At first blush these questions may seem alien to the practice of a martial art, but I believe that extended practice of some combative form or another is a reflection of an ever-progressive quest to satisfy ever deeper needs, somewhat akin to Maslow`s hierarchy of needs. Often at the most fundamental level a martial system is required to satisfy the need to be able to fight. That is, after all, what separates a combative art from other activities. Some people may be happy to learn a few techniques and feel a little safer and quit training. Others, their need for at least rudimentary fighting skills now satisfied, continue to attend their dojo. These people are looking for other needs to be satisfied...the need to be fit and healthy, a social need, a need for a sense of accomplishment, a need for competition, if not with other people, then at least with oneself. And so it goes on. I had a need as a teenager for exposure to something that to me at the time was exotic hence the appeal of Karate Kid II and my desire to travel to East Asia. As we progress we may view our chosen art as exactly that: an art form that fulfills our need to express ourselves while also being a vehicle to investigate ourselves. Finally though I believe that a martial art can sate our need to understand the whole process of existence, of living and dying.

Thus our chosen martial art - whether it be karate or some other form - becomes a way of life: a lifelong pursuit to understand - and express - life through the practice of a combative art form.

What is a martial art?

Many of the martial arts available to study in modern life owe their origins ultimately to the battlefield of yesteryear. Before technology changed the art of war forever, warriors fought at close-quarters using hand weapons or, if disarmed, their bare hands. Warfare was brutal and required the fighting men to develop highly honed skills along with immense bravery. Self-defense training was not the main goal; victory in a one-on-one (if the combatant was lucky...), brutally violent fight was the sole aim of training. In these circumstances the first formalized fighting arts of ancient Greece and ancient India were spawned and began to spread into neighboring areas. Undoubtedly there were other methods of making war, but these systems, if indeed any such organized systems ever existed, have been lost to history.

As technology advanced the role of the elite warrior became obsolete. Mass conscript armies dominated the battlefield and the distance between the lines of soldiers increased as firearms became more widespread and easier to use. A key to victory became simply amassing greater firepower than the enemy. Skill in the use of weapons was less important than the number - and the power - of weapons that could be brought to bear on an opponent. The usefulness of traditional battlefield fighting arts began to decline and self-defense became a priority instead. Others began to adapt classical techniques for the sporting arena. Fencing, boxing and wrestling in the West were introduced to the Olympic Games, thereby encouraging standardization of techniques and rules for different arts in other countries. The most recent and widespread development is Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) which tends to be made up of boxing, wrestling, Muay Thai and Brazilian Jiu Jitsu (BJJ). In Japan in particular, the move to modernization of classical fighting arts was undertaken and led by Jigoro Kano, the founder of judo, whose sport would later also be included in the Olympics. There is currently an attempt to have karate registered too as an Olympic sport.

Other masters, moreso in Asia than in the West, encouraged the pursuit of spiritual awakening through the intensive practice of a fighting system. In Japan in particular the arts had long been associated with Zen Buddhism through the samurai warrior class who had adopted the ascetic spiritual tradition as their own. In India yoga had always heavily influenced all physical pursuits. Training then was less about fighting and personal protection or sport and more about the serious nature of spiritual realization. Combative movement became a form of dynamic meditation.

Still others recognized that martial arts could provide a good workout. Again, Jigoro Kano was an early proponent of this approach and in recent years we have seen the immense popularity of the Billy Blanks Bootcamp DVD (Blanks is a practitioner of Tae Kwon Do). The movements naturally lent themselves to the development of both aerobic and anaerobic fitness, along with promoting flexibility and, again moreso in Asia, healthy, deeper breathing patterns.

If we ask 'What is a martial art today?' then we find that one of the most attractive features of training is that the arts are so multi-faceted. A practitioner can choose to specialize or he or she can soak up the immense benefits that regular practice offers for all ages. Well-balanced lessons will provide instruction in the various techniques that comprise the different styles in a safe, productive manner. Supplementary conditioning will further help to improve your level of fitness and raise your health awareness. Many classes end with a period of meditation, visualization or quiet reflection. Training can be performed as a solo exercise or at an academy which will also offer the benefit of a social support network.

Martial arts can be studied by anyone of any age or background. Schools and gyms tend to offer different programs to cater for kids and adults. Children especially love to train and are highly motivated by the acquisition of different colored belts that reflect growing expertise and personal growth and development, with the much-respected black belt being the ultimate target of many participants. In recent years more women have also become attracted to the pursuit of a chosen art and continue to reap the rewards. Indeed, it is not unusual nowadays to find a family training together either in the same class or at different times in the same school. You will usually be able to observe classes and take a free lesson prior to joining to take your time and choose the gym and instructor that is best suited for you and your needs.

Equipment tends to be fairly simple and may comprise of nothing more than a training uniform. Any needs you may have can be met by shopping online or at a local store. The arts have become so popular that most cities will have at least one specialist shop selling clothing and other apparel, sparring gear, books, and instructional DVDs.

I myself have been training for some 30 years and have no regrets at all about the amount of time and energy I have given to my chosen arts (karate in particular). The pursuit of a martial art is, I strongly believe, one of the best courses of action a person of any age can undertake. Enjoy your journey! Osssuuu!!!

Karate

Karate is today popularly known as a Japanese martial art of unarmed combat utilizing dynamic strikes and kicks to subdue an aggressive opponent. The mixed origins of this art however lie - geographically - much further away than mainland Japan, through the island of Okinawa in the Ryukyu island chain and ultimately to the south-east area of China in the Fujian province (Fukien on the map below). Time and circumstance have also played important roles in the formulation and development of the art, with influence from Japanese martial arts stretching back to the Heian period. To cap it all off, both the armed and unarmed arts were tested and made practical on the battlefield over several centuries of inter-tribal warfare. All of these influences - and more - have fathered the birth of karate....

Okinawa was militarized long before the advent of recorded history and localized war was as common there as anywhere else where competing tribes fought to protect themselves. Mainstream Japanese fighting techniques and philosophies entered the island from the Heian period (794-1185) onwards through visiting aristocrats who brought with them a retinue of bodyguards that were skilled in the use of the halberd, spear and sword, and who could perform archery (the chosen art of the samurai before the sword gained ascendancy) and grapple. This knowledge was absorbed by indigenous warriors exposed to it and put to good use in violent territorial disputes among local warrior chieftains between the seventh and fifteenth centuries.

One such example cited by Patrick McCarthy (though it is disputed by mainstream historians) was the influence of Minamoto Tametomo of the Minamoto clan. According to McCarthy, in his career Tametomo overran Kyushu (the southernmost area of mainland Japan) after being exiled to Oshima Island (in the Izu Island chain) following defeat by the Taira clan and his subsequent escape. From Kyushu Tametomo moved further south to Okinawa. Marrying into the family of a local warlord Tametomo's son, Shunten, went on to become the most powerful warrior chief on the island with his dynasty lasting until 1253, a period in which martial arts from the Japanese mainland became further embedded into the Okinawan way of fighting. This is the story believed by certain residents in Okinawa, but historians argue the events are fictitious and were created at a later date to attempt to legitimize Japanese dominion over the Ryukyu Islands. There is a similar story (also not true) told on Amami Oshima, a major island to the north of Okinawa.

Minamoto Tametomo. Tametomo was famed for his skill with the bow, the 'badge' of the samurai class before the katana and wakizashi emerged as the more famous signifiers of the warrior elite.

For the next two centuries localized warfare continued between three primary areas until, in 1429, Sho Hashi was able to emerge victorious and form a centralized government. Though 1429 is a significant date in the overall history of Okinawa, a date of more importance to the history of karate is 1507 when Sho Shin-O ratified the 'Act of Eleven Distinctions', one of which prohibited the ownership and stockpiling of private weapons. Suddenly there was no access to weapons as a means of personal self-defense and, at a deeper level, the techniques and martial strategies that had developed under the influence of the armed warriors from mainland Japan had no apparent means of expression. Without a physical sword the technique and strategy of using a blade in combat appear to become redundant. From 1507 onwards then the people of Okinawa turned to the investigation of unarmed combat techniques in lieu of the possibility of making an armed response to an aggressor. These weaponless fighting approaches would, many changes later, one day become various schools of karate.

As important as the date of 1507 is in understanding the historical development of karate, the ban on the ownership of weapons is not a simple watershed. It is not true that prior to 1507 Okinawan warriors exclusively used weapons in combat and after they adopted unarmed systems of combat. The fighting arts that later developed into karate did not appear out of nowhere.

In his book Bible of Karate: Bubishi Patrick McCarthy identifies various streams of Chinese influence on the indigenous te fighting styles. It is in this synthesis that the true origins of karate can be found and this synthesis accelerated after 1507 as warriors sought to become more efficient in their deadly trade sans their weapons.

The earliest recorded contact between Okinawa and China occurred in the early 7th century. Commerce and cultural exchange were slow to develop though and it was not until 1372, shortly after the demise of Mongol dominance in China, that an envoy was sent from China to Okinawa to invite the latter to become a tributary. Under the terms of the alliance trade between the two nations would increase and by the close of the 14th century a Chinese trading mission (known as the 'Thirty-Six Families') had been established in the capital city Naha. For the next five centuries, until the Ryukyu Islands were annexed by Japan in the 1870s, Chinese language and culture, including martial arts, was disseminated through Okinawa and the island chain. Close relations between the two countries also led to outstanding young Okinawan scholars being given the opportunity to travel to China to further their studies, opening the door for Chinese martial arts to be learned at the source and then transmitted back to the island.

Another possible source identified by Patrick McCarthy is the sapposhi, or special envoys and their entourage sent out to the furthest reaches of the Chinese Empire to improve communication. Over the course of 500 years before Japanese annexation twenty such envoys visited Okinawa, usually staying for a period of between 4-6 months. During these diplomatic missions it is possible that Chinese martial arts were further taught to select students.

The sapposhi and his large entourage. A possible source of knowledge of Chinese martial arts that influenced the development of karate?

The Pechin

One class within feudal Okinawan society that did perpetuate the practice of Chinese-influenced combative arts was the pechin. The pechin were middle-ranking warriors, somewhat equivalent to mainland Japanese samurai. Like the other classes, the pechin were created by Sho Shin and served in an official capacity from 1509 to 1879. Unlike the higher ranking classes, the pechin occupied positions and conducted affairs that brought them into direct contact with lower ranking citizens. For example, the pechin could be employed in civil administration or law enforcement. It was members of the pechin class pursuing a career in maintaining a lawful peace who can take more credit that any others for sustaining the practice of unarmed combat under direct Japanese rule.

Early training in karate

The Shimazu Invasion of the Ryukyu Islands

The Shimazu clan were firmly entrenched in the Satsuma peninsula approximating modern-day Kagoshima prefecture in the extreme southern area of Kyushu Island. The clan, famous for their strong sword style of Jigen ryu, were suffering after failed campaigns in Korea under Toyotomi Hideyoshi and after defeat at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, the final great battle that led to the establishment of the Tokugawa Shogunate. With a high number of samurai retainers and little in the way of spoils of war to repay them Shimazu Yoshihisa, the leader of the Shimazu clan, turned his eyes southwards. The Shogunate was only too happy to bleed the Shimazu further and distract them from any thoughts of rebellion (1). Thus, in 1609, an invasion fleet set sail and swept down the Ryukyuan island chain defeating all opposition at it went and occupying the islands taken.

Victory was swift. The Shimazu samurai were battle-hardened and there was little the Okinawans could do, moreso given that significant portions of the populace had had no access to weapons for 100 years. After three months of fighting Shuri castle was captured and the Shimazu took control of Okinawan political affairs. One result of this was the strict enforcement of a weapons ban, thereby finalizing the policy initially set forth by Sho Shin-O almost one hundred years earlier.

Jigen Ryu Influence on the Development of Karate

Jigen ryu is the battlefield sword art of the Satsuma samurai. As peace was established throughout the Ryukyu islands select pechin traveled to Satsuma peninsula and received training in this art. One such person was "Bushi" Matsumura, an important figure in the historical development of karate. Matsumura synthesized indigenous Okinawan fighting techniques with those of China arts and Jigen ryu. Notable among his students were Itosu Anko and Asato Anko, two men that would play a later crucial role in formalizing and popularizing Shuri te, while also heavily influencing Funakoshi Gichin, a man who would go on to do more than anyone to spread karate around Japan and beyond.

Another interesting historical development occurred much earlier when the second generation headmaster of the Jigen ryu, Togo Bizen no Kami Shigekata, was ordered by the head of the Shimazu clan to teach some rudimentary fighting skills to the farming population of Okinawa in case of an invasion; the peasant population could operate as a militia. This influence has been recorded in a folk dance known as the Jigen ryu Bo Odori.

Finally, it was also under Shimazu rule that kobudo developed. Kobudo is the combative use of common everyday implements such as the eiku (boat oar), the kama (sickle) and the famous nunchaku (rice flail).

Contrary to popular belief then, Shuri te (the forerunner of the Shotokan karate style created by Funakoshi Gichin and which spawned offshoots such as the Wado ryu, Kyokushinkai and Shotokai styles of karate) was not a simple amalgam of Chinese martial arts and Okinawan te. This is in contrast to the Naha te style introduced to Okinawa by Kanryo Higaonna which was most definitely a Chinese martial art (most likely some kind of Crane school) modified to a certain degree on Okinawa but free from the influence of the Jigen ryu. The Shimazu invasion and subsequent exposure to Jigen ryu that some masters had was a vital event in the development of what has become modern day karate do.

The Dawn of Modern Karatedo

Shimazu control of Okinawa ended in 1868 with the Meiji Isshin (the restoration or revolution - depending on who you read - that put the Emperor back in control of Japan curtailing the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate). This event signaled the beginning of the modernization of Japan. Within just a few decades Japan went from a non-industrialized economy with little to no modern accoutrements to a 'wanna be' on the world stage. Industry changed radically along with the political scene; the army and navy were modernized thereby ending the age of the samurai once and for all and two significant wars were fought and won: the first against the Chinese in 1894-95 and the second against the Russians in 1904-05.

Japanese battleship Mikasa, the flagship of Admiral Togo Heihachiro, at the decisive Battle of Tsushima (1905).

With the simultaneous eradication of the samurai class and their warrior ethos and the rise of a modern army trained to use the latest weaponry Japan's traditional martial arts suddenly found themselves irrelevant. The modern army was made up of conscripts who by necessity had to be trained as quickly and efficiently as possible. There was no impetus to developing a warrior from birth. Further, the traditional martial arts - both armed and unarmed - were clearly unable to compare to the devastating effectiveness of rifles and artillery. Not only did it take less time to train a soldier to use a firearm, that firearm was infinitely more efficacious. The traditional fighting arts were set to decline.

Japanese conscripts, part of Japan's new modern army, charge the Russian lines during the Russo-Japanese war (1905-05). This was the first time an Asian country had defeated a European power.
Note the use of modern firearms, the bayonet and the uniform of the soldiers.
The days of the samurai were over.

Against this backdrop of modernization the classic arts (bujutsu) reinvented themselves as predominantly a way of life (budo). Kenjutsu became kendo, or the way of the sword, while ju jutsu became judo, or the soft way. While retaining a core of combative techniques, the emphasis was less on practical application in a fight and more on developing the morality of practitioners while fostering a sense of 'Japaneseness' in the face of Westernization.

Japan's Monbusho (Ministry of Education) wholeheartedly supported the spread of various budo (judo, kendo and so on) in the school system and so the (modified) techniques of yesteryear reached a new and wider audience. Training was serious and a sense of shugyo (austerity in practice) prevailed.

Karate Comes to Japan

In its drive towards modernization and in pursuit of a foreign policy that would win it colonial possessions similar to those of the main European powers, Japan introduced a draft requiring male Japanese citizens to serve for a period of time in the military in 1873. This draft now included the Okinawans. While undergoing mandatory medical testing two men in particular stood out as exemplary specimens of fitness: Hanashiro Chomo and Yabu Kentsu. After some investigation it was discovered by the military authorities that these men enjoyed a superior physique and level of endurance through their practice of karate.

Hanashiro Chomo

Yabu Kentsu

Despite positive first impressions though, the Japanese military finally abandoned the idea of introducing the art as a discipline for recruits owing to the apparent lack of organization, impractical training methods and the time commitment needed to develop sufficiently. While not officially endorsed by the military then, karate was from this period taught in schools, possibly with the ulterior motive of conditioning teenagers to be able to better serve their country when drafted, but at the very least to be more productive in Japanese society.

The famous master Itosu Anko led this movement along with other notable characters in the evolution of the Okinawan fighting art. A trade-off was required that would have a lasting impact on the development of the art: for karate to become more widespread and popular the emphasis in training had to be changed. Removing hard core self-defense applications in lieu of teaching children, the new generation of masters introduced the group practice of kata to promote physical well-being. The original bunkai, or combative applications of the kata movements were all but lost until the close of the twentieth century when the 'secrets' began to be revealed and taught once again in conjunction with the kata.

Master Itosu Anko

Itosu Anko was a defining force in the formulation of modern day karate. He created and taught the Pinan kata; simplified patterns of movement derived from the longer and more complex traditional kata. These kata were later changed by Funakoshi Gichin to become the Heian kata. Both the Pinan and Heian kata are still taught today and are among the first kata students from around the world will study.

Master Funakoshi Gichin Sensei was a principle architect in the modernization and popularization of karate. Here he leads his students in group kata practice.

It was this new form of fighting and training that was principally introduced to Japan and made popular by Funakoshi Gichin. His students, upon completion of a later new dojo, named the training room the Shoto Kan - or Shoto's Hall - and thus the first Japanese style was born: Shotokan.

Japanese Karate

Japan of course already had a rich history of martial arts and, as noted above, the traditional arts of kenjutsu and jujutsu had both already morphed into kendo and judo respectively. These arts were organized and well represented. To become popularly accepted karate would have to emulate these arts.

This move towards a level of standardization acceptable to the Butokukai (the National governing body for Japanese martial arts) saw many changes including the establishment of a training uniform (the gi), the use of a standardized curriculum and the use of kyu and dan gradings to reflect a student's progress within that curriculum, and the introduction of a sporting element. One of the biggest changes though was the name itself.

Dai Nippon Butoku Kai

China Hand Becomes Empty Hand

Owing to the increasing level of nationalism in Japan in the 1920s and 1930s especially China and Chinese people in general were denigrated. Originally karate was made up of two ideograms. The second (te) was and would remain read as 'hand'. The first ideogram though (pronounced 'tou' or 'kara') referred to China's Tang dynasty and was taken to mean 'China'. Karate (or toudi depending on who was speaking) meant 'China Hand'.

in 1905 Hanashiro Chomo wrote a book and used, for the first time, a different way of writing karate. The first ideogram was now read as 'empty' (though with the same pronunciation in Japanese). Hanashiro Chomo therefore read the name of the art as Empty Hand.

Later Funakoshi Gichin studied Zen at Engakuji Temple and expanded his understanding of the ideogram 'kara' (empty) and took it back to its Buddhist origins. For Funakoshi the meaning of 'kara' also embraced the Buddhist idea that there was no thing (mu - nothing) in the Universe and by extension no duality. Through Funakoshi in particular the latter reading of karate became popular and this reading has been perpetuated.

Memorial dedicated to Funakoshi Gichin at Engakuji (Engaku temple), Kamakura.
The final part of the inscription reads:
Ken Zen Ichi
(The Fist and Zen are One)

This shift in reading wasn't immediately popular in Okinawa and it was sometime later (1936 in Okinawa as opposed to 1933 in Japan) that the new reading was officially ratified. A reading of this article on the history and development of the art reveals clearly that this Okinawan fighting method was much more than a simple inheritance of Chinese martial arts techniques. Up until the 1920s/1930s toudi had been influenced by indigenous fighting arts, skills from Japanese warriors arriving in the Heian period (794-1185), and then later by the Jigen ryu of the Shimazu clan, along with Chinese martial arts. All of this was tested and refined for combat effectiveness in local wars up until the reign of King Sho Hashi who both brought about relative peace and whose ancestor banned, at least legally if not practically, the private ownership of weapons. Then, later, upon adoption by the Police on Okinawa, the art had to tested once again for its pragmatic ability to subdue a criminal. Clearly to have called the art China Hand (and thereby imply that it is solely Chinese in origin) was misleading. The exception to this was the Naha te / Goju ryu strand which most definitely did originate solely from China.

While the ideogram 'kara' was being read in a new way the art also became officially a 'do' as in judo and kendo. 'Do' means a way or a path and carries with it, in my opinion, three meanings. First karate do should be seen as a way of life that will (second) bring the practitioner into contact with the universal, eternal Do (Tao or Dao in Chinese - thereby relating the art also to Taoism) at which point (third) the art becomes a means of expressing that harmony with the universal Do. With the change in name from toudi jutsu to karate do a deeper spiritual meaning to one's training was established.

The Post-War Years

Following defeat in World War Two the Japanese martial arts were for a short time banned completely. Karate didn't suffer such great oppression as it could be described as (and understood by the occupying forces as) a form of boxing. Shorn of all militarism the first non-Japanese students began training (American servicemen) and the JKA (Japan Karate Association) was established teaching Shotokan. The JKA organized an instructor's program and eventually sent out the cream of its cadre around the world to spread the art. Sensei included such luminaries as Nishiyama Hidetaka, Asai Tetsuhiko, Kanazawa Hirokazu and Enoeda Keinosuke. Other teachers of other styles followed this example and the exchange was facilitated when foreign students began traveling directly to Japan to train in the top dojo (the honbu). As these foreign students themselves became accredited teachers the art was able to spread further and nowadays you can find a formal or informal dojo in most populous areas in any first world country. Karate has quickly become a very popular form of self-defense, a sport, a method of keeping fit, an academic subject and a spiritual discipline for millions of people worldwide.

(1) Some historians argue that the Japanese campaigns on the Korean peninsula were pursued by Toyotomi Hideyoshi for a similar reason: to either kill off surviving samurai from the civil war period or to otherwise remove them from the mainland if they were victorious. It is also worth noting that it was Saigo Takamori, a major for in Satsuma politics who led a revolt against the Imperial government in 1877. His samurai were firmly defeated by a conscript army utilizing modern weaponry, thereby once and for all ending samurai dominance of the battlefield. Fans of the movie The Last Samurai starring Tom Cruise, Ken Watanabe and Koyuki will be interested to note that the events portrayed are heavily influenced these real life events.

Ryu Ryu Ko and the Origins of Okinawan Naha Te

Ryu Ryu Ko and the origins of Okinawan Naha te traces the techniques and philosophy that would go on to be labeled Naha te and then Goju ryu karate as introduced to Okinawa by Kanryo Higaonna directly from Fuzhou City, the political, economic and cultural center of Fujian province, towards the end of the nineteenth century. While living for an extended period of time in Fuzhou, Kanryo Higaonna studied Crane kung fu with a great master named Ryu Ryu Ko.

Kanryo Higaonna's father was killed in a fight when the boy was fourteen. Desirous of revenge, Higaonna decided he would travel to China to learn a fighting art before returning to his island home to avenge his father. The young Higaonna finally left Okinawa in 1867 at the age of 15.

Upon his arrival in Fuzhou, Higaonna stayed at the Uchinayaru, a hostel owned by an Okinawan and catering to Okinawans. The manager, Kanpu Tanmei, upon hearing of Higaonna's wish to study Chinese martial arts, was able to arrange an all-important formal and personal introduction to Ryu Ryu Ko. In those days it was very difficult to be accepted as a student of any martial arts, and Higaonna certainly 'lucked out' in meeting Kanpu Tanmei. After the introductions were over, the Chinese master accepted Higaonna as a student after the latter swore an oath of allegiance and loyalty.

Believed to be Ryu Ryu Ko.

Ryu Ryu Ko and the Origins of Okinawan Naha Te

The relationship between Ryu Ryu Ko and Higaonna was more complicated than the modern day teacher-student arrangement that many, if not all, reading this will have. First of all, as part payment and part a test of character, Higaonna was required to help his teacher cut and collect bamboo. Only when Higaonna had proved himself diligent, hard working and responsible enough to learn a fighting art did his training properly begin. The master would use this bamboo to make various goods, such as baskets and furniture, to support himself. Originally Ryu Ryu Ko had been a member of the aristocratic class through his family and it was his social standing that allowed him to attend the southern Shaolin Temple in Fujian Province. Owing to political upheaval at the time, he and his family had little choice but to blend into the background and hide their aristocratic status. As a result of this Higaonna's teacher worked at various jobs throughout his life to disguise his social origins.

Reports describe Ryu Ryu Ko as being tall, around six feet in height, with an athletic physique that kept him slim and muscular and he was particularly famous for his strong grip. One anecdote notes that not only could the master crush bamboo, but he could also pull it apart using his fingers. Personality wise he was considered warm-hearted, though stern when teaching.

Another story draws our attention to the lack of rigidity in teaching kata and points to variations between different masters. Another practitioner of sanchin in Fuzhou was Wan Shin Za. Wan Shin Za used a stance in sanchin that was both wider and longer than that employed by Ryu Ryu Ko.

Speaking of sanchin we find evidence here of the severity of training promoted by Ryu Ryu Ko. While instructing Kanryo Higaonna, the founder of Naha te, the Okinawan would be subjected to extreme shime, or slapping and striking, while executing sanchin kata. This body conditioning, intended to toughen both the body and mind, is something that Goju ryu karate remains famous for today and is often witnessed in demonstrations.

Ryu Ryu Ko appears to have been a master of Whooping Crane kung fu (there is no definite evidence but he was almost certainly a master of a form of Crane kung fu), and he would teach a broad spectrum of martial arts, including a long list of kata, kakie (pushing hands practice), ude tanren (arm conditioning), ne waza (ground fighting), hojo undo (supplementary training, including the use of rudimentary weight training equipment), the long and short swords (now seemingly lost to Goju ryu karate), and the bo (staff). One aspect of training familiar to Okinawan and Japanese karateka not mentioned is the use of the makiwara (striking post), raising the obvious question as to whether or not this was a supplementary training aid indigenous to Okinawa itself.

Beyond martial technique, Ryu Ryu Ko also taught herbal medicine and I would suspect that, at least in part, this knowledge may have come from the Bubishi, the 'manual' of Okinawan karate that arrived from China through, it seems, various sources. It can be seen that the master gave well-rounded instruction to his students, most especially Kanryo Higaonna, who studied in Fuzhou for approximately 14 years, learning both martial arts and herbal medicine. Higaonna returned to Okinawa in around 1881. Living in Naha, near the port, the martial art he taught became known as Naha te. This would be the forerunner of Goju ryu karatedo.

It is believed that Ryu Ryu Ko died in February, 1930.

Shotokan Karate

Shotokan karate is the original Japanese version of karate. It was introduced to the mainland of Japan in the early twentieth century from Okinawa under the guise of Shorin ryu. The main progenitor was Gichin Funakoshi, a former Okinawan schoolteacher and descendant of a minor official. On the mainland kendo and judo were becoming more popular, particularly among students, and Funakoshi recognized that it would be beneficial to the promulgation of his art if certain aspects of these two specifically Japanese systems were adopted. Thus a kyu and dan grading method, reflected in the wearing of different colored belts came to be introduced. Other changes came to be made over the years to the technique and training method and so the karate of Okinawa became the karate of mainland Japan. For instance, the reading of the kanji for the kara of karate was changed from 'China' (thus from the meaning ‘China hand’) to ‘empty’ (or ‘empty hand’). Such developments were recognized in 1936 with the opening of a new dojo, the Shoto kan, Shoto being the pen name Funakoshi used to sign his poetry and kan simply means 'hall'. A new style had been publicly created and acknowledged: Shotokan karate.

Gichin Funakoshi and Shotokan Karate

Initially it was the upper classes of Japanese society that were attracted to this art but it was in the universities in the 1930s that it achieved increasingly widespread popularity.

As war in the pacific approached and finally broke out more and more youngsters, destined for the front lines, trained and the technique became harsh and simple. In the months before Japan’s surrender more women and children took up training, victims of propaganda that told of an imminent and bloody allied invasion. In the years after the war Shotokan karate became more and more popular. Edicts introduced by General MacArthur prevented the practice of traditional martial arts, yet karate was recognized as a form of boxing and was able to thrive. Towards the end his life Funakoshi oversaw the tuition of American pilots in his art, useful for them if they were shot down behind enemy lines. As Americans and others of different nationalities became more accepted in post war Japan dojo opened their doors and anybody of sufficient character was admitted to the training halls. In the years following, instructors of the highest caliber, representing Shotokan karate, were sent from Japan throughout the world to further popularize the art. Most are still healthy and involved in the art on an international level in contemporary society.

Today Gichin Funakoshi is popularly referred to as being the Father of Japanese karate.

Shotokan is a mostly linear style of karate. Central to its combat ethos is the idea of ikken hissatsu – to kill with one blow. The exponent of Shotokan is inclined to concentrate his power in ending the fight with a single powerful technique rather than making use of fast combinations. He is adept at using his fists and legs to make these attacks, this power enhanced by his knowledge of weak points in the human body that can be struck to maximize damage. Practitioners study a variety of kata as they progress through higher kyu and dan grades, these kata containing the ‘secrets’ of the art. Students of this art may also strike a makiwara, a flexible wooden pole wrapped with straw at its topmost edge, to develop strength, balance and power. Nowadays, even in Japan, the use of a makiwara has been mostly replaced with the use of punch bags which are less damaging to the limbs.

The History of Karate by Morio Higaonna

The History of Karate by Morio Higaonna - Book Review covering the history of Naha te / Goju ryu and the life of Chojun Miyagi. Although this book is now somewhat old, I recently got a copy of it from a friend and decided to review it based on the strength of the material presented. That said, the first important thing to note is that the title of the book is somewhat deceptive. The sub-title is 'Okinawan Goju Ryu' and that is precisely what is covered in the book. It is less 'The History of Karate' and far more 'The History of Goju Ryu Karate'. That shouldn't dissuade anyone interested in the history of karate or the Okinawan arts in general from reading it, but the book will be far more appealing to Goju ryu practitioners than anyone else.

The contents of the book are a blend of historical facts and collected anecdotes. The facts are far more appealing than the anecdotes as the latter can be somewhat vague in painting an accurate picture and at least one story is clearly made up and this unfortunately casts a shadow of doubt over the rest of the anecdotal evidence. The story in question relates to Chojun Miyagi and the claim that one night during the Battle of Okinawa he was strafed by a single US fighter plane but managed to escape any harm by running in a zig-zag pattern. I would be dubious about the story even if it was claimed to have happened during the day, but the fact that a carrier-based plane was flying around at night is clearly rubbish. I appreciate that in East Asia in particular great reverence is given to elders and teachers and former students are no doubt well-meaning in attempting to portray their sensei as being the bees knees, but it makes it difficult sometimes to distinguish between what is fact and what is not.

Morio Higaonna has done a great job of presenting the information and where he is lacking in conclusive proof he is happy to present all theories. One such instance is his frank admittance that, after research in Fuzhou prefecture, it is impossible to determine which Chinese kung fu / wushu style in particular Goju ryu is descended from.

The History of Karate briefly covers the historical background that led to the formation of various karate styles (most notably the military dominance of Okinawa by the Shimazu clan from 1609 onwards) and then jumps into the Goju ryu history proper with Kanryo Higaonna's trip to Fuzhou to train with Ryu Ryu Ko. Kanryo Higaonna (no relation to the author and famed karate master Morio Higaonna) returned to Okinawa and began teaching. One student in particular stood out, Chojun Miyagi.

Much of the book is devoted to the life of Chojun Miyagi and how he formalized and spread what developed from Naha te and came to be known as Goju ryu karate around Okinawa and finally to mainland Japan. A lot of great, insightful information is presented though as mentioned above, I recommend treating at last some of it with a degree of skepticism. There are some gems though, such as details on Chojun Miyagi's trip to Hawaii and his discovery and adoption of the kongo ken training device.

The book also covers the lives of Jin'an Shinzato (Miyagi's top student before Shinzato's death during the Battle of Okinawa) and An'ichi Miyagi (a primary teacher of Morio Higaonna).

This brings me to the most glaring omission in The History of Karate. After the death of Chojun Miyagi in 1953 it was Ei'ichi Miyazato, Miyagi's most senior post-war student, who established the Jundokan dojo in Okinawa to continue the teaching of Goju ryu. Despite this Morio Higaonna barely mentions Miyazato and there is certainly no focus given to this late master aside from a short interview at the back of the book. To be fair to Higaonna, Miyazato admitted in an interview that he had been approached to participate in the book, but still I feel a lot more could have been done to detail the life of head of the Jundokan. Afterall, a tremendous amount of information was presented on Miyagi, Kanryo Higaonna and even Ryu Ryu Ko without interview access. Without going into the politics of it all it seems that Morio Higaonna championed the idea that An'ichi Miyagi - Higaonna's principle teacher through much of his life - was the true inheritor of the legacy left by Chojun Miyagi. Unfortunately this is reflected in the book and to an extent it does read as if Morio Higaonna is attempting to legitimize any claim he may make as being the next in line of direct succession from Ryu Ryu Ko to Kanryo Higaonna to Chojun Miyagi to An'ichi Miyagi and then to the author. In this respect, the latter history of more modern Goju ryu does not appear to be being presented as objectively as the earlier history.

The History of Karate: Conclusion

All said though, The History of Karate is a great read and well worth delving into. Various other karate masters are mentioned to a greater or lesser extent and anyone with an interest in the overall shift from karate as a fighting art taught to select students to a more popularized version will find this book of value. Needless to say, for Goju ryu trainees, this should still be considered essential reading despite some bias in the presentation of evidence and opinion.

Goju Ryu Karate

Goju ryu karate plays an important and significant role in the long history of Okinawan fighting arts, going back centuries if one traces the origins back through Chinese and Japanese sources. Goju ryu itself however, at least as a discernible style, has a more recent history. The art originated with Kanryo Higashionna, a former student of Shuri te Master Aragaki, who traveled to Fukien province in the second half of the nineteenth century and studied under Ryu Ryu Ko. Ryu Ryu Ko seems to have been Xie Zhongxiang, the founder of Whooping Crane kung fu, though this is by no means certain. After returning to Okinawa Higashionna began teaching his version of Naha te.

Chojun Miyagi and the Creation of Goju Ryu Karate

His most promising student came to be Chojun Miyagi. Miyagi studied with Higashionna for the last fifteen years of the masters life, interrupted by a one year visit to Fukien in search of the origins of Naha te. Unable to find a suitable teacher Miyagi instead studied under various people and returned to Okinawa with a new kata that he named Tensho, a variation on the White Crane Rokusho. Tensho is considered to represent the 'soft' side of the art while the signature kata Sanchin represents the 'hard' side. This exploration of hard and soft is reflected in the name Goju, which means Hard / Soft. Goju ryu karate therefore means the School or Hard and Soft Karate. The term itself was taken from the Bubishi, a collection of articles on Southern Chinese fighting arts (among other things) that influenced Okinawan karate. In its day this was the closest thing to a manual that existed and it continues to be studied today.

The style draws its core techniques from twelve kata, with Sanchin being the most important and heavily practiced. Stylists also continue to emphasize conditioning the body and use the makiwara (striking post) as well as traditional Okinawa weight training equipment (known collectively as hojo undo) supplemented by the kongo ken which was introduced after Master Miyagi saw wrestlers on Hawaii using something similar. Foju ryu also makes use of kakie, or pushing hands, inherited from China and nowadays somewhat lacking in karate which tends to favor longer distance sparring. The style is most effective at close quarters, though it does lack ground work.

Since the death of Chojun Miyagi, the style has become somewhat splintered. Jinan Shinzato, Miyagi's top student, was killed during World War Two. Ei'ichi Miyazato was elected to formally take over the style as its overall master but Meitoku Yagi had inherited the master's gi and belt, factors which carried significance. Furthermore, the only person Miyagi actually authorized to teach was Seiko Higa. It seems that there is no clear lineage for a student to follow any longer. Arguably the most famous Goju ryu karate master alive today is Morio Higaonna, who remains hugely popular with an international student body.

Shotokan Karate Kata

Shotokan karate kata lie at the heart of the style. After arriving in Japan from Okinawa various forms of kumite (sparring) were introduced, including free sparring which led to the establishment of competitive karate. This development has added a new challenge for the karate ka and has arguably played a major part in helping to spread the art to an international audience. Leading from this the former UFC World Light Heavyweight champion Lyoto Machida emerged from a Shotokan / point fighting background to use his elusive counter-striking style to dominate his division until defeated by Mauricio Rua after winning 16 straight MMA fights.

But when karate first came to Japan, and in its birthplace of Okinawa, kata were the main focus of study, along with conditioning exercises. Gichin Funakoshi sensei talks about how in his early years of practice he would train well into the night repeating the movements of the forms until his teacher was satisfied with his performance. Throughout his life Funakoshi expanded the range of Shotokan karate kata to its current standing, while also modifying movements as he saw fit (and which may have been subsequently modified by other practitioners). Each pattern then has its own history and each karate ka has his own interpretation both of how the form should be performed and how the movements should be applied in a combative situation. There is no 'right' way to either do the kata or apply the movements (though different dojo and organizations may argue otherwise...). No historical records are currently available to settle the matter one way or the other. Personally I feel that the forms are alive and ever-changing and should provide stimulation for the student rather than be seen as something dead and static and unavailable for change.

Development of Shotokan Karate Kata

There have been several broad phases in the development of the kata. The initial phase saw the introduction of forms from southern Chinese martial arts. These were no doubt modified but it is difficult to tell when, by whom and how each master modified the original. In some cases there is no apparent historical antecedent originating in China and scholars must 'read between the lines' in determining the place of origin.

The second broad phase was the most crucial in shaping Shotokan. Anko Itosu, one of the teachers of Gichin Funakoshi, was hugely innovative and created the five Pinan / Heian forms, modified the Naihanchi / Tekki form(s) and created various other kata such as Gojushiho Sho and Kanku Sho. In all but name, these patterns formed the basis for the Shotokan karate kata syllabus.

The third stage saw Funakoshi make further modifications on mainland Japan as the art spread among universities and the general population. For the most part these changes were further simplifications and further reinforced the identity of Shotokan as a mostly linear martial art. We also find the first teachings in Karatedo Kyohan of concepts rather than just techniques. While some criticize Funakoshi for the changes he made it is my opinion that he was heavily influenced by the writings of Japan's greatest martial philosophers in the late 1920s and early 1930s and this led him to reevaluate his approach in turn leading him to de-emphasize more complicated technique to simplify matters to focus more on the concepts he was attempting to convey.

The fourth stage witnessed the impact of Funakoshi's third son, 'Gigo', who deepened the stances of the art and made it more athletic and physically demanding. His influence was tremendous and continued in the post war years as the JKA and subsequent splinter groups almost universally adopted this distinctive approach.

Heian Shodan
Heian Nidan
Heian Sandan
Heian Yondan
Heian Godan
Tekki Shodan
Tekki Nidan
Tekki Sandan
Bassai Dai
Kanku Dai
Jiin
Jion
Jitte
Chinte
Enpi
Gankaku
Hangetsu
Sochin
Meikyo
Nijushiho
Bassai Sho
Kanku Sho
Gojushiho Dai
Gojushiho Sho
Wankan
Unsu

Unsu

Unsu is both the hardest and most visually impressive among all the Shotokan forms. The name means 'cloud hands' and it contains many intricate techniques that build on other more advanced kata. In particular the pattern is unique in teaching the concept of fighting from the ground.

Although the kata is thought to be of Chinese origin, and most likely from the Dragon kung fu style, no other information is currently available.

Master Kanazawa performing Unsu

Wankan

Not a lot is known about Wankan. It originates from the Tomari te stream and is of Chinese origin, but when it was introduced to Okinawa and by whom is unknown.

The form is short, but difficult to perform well. One suggested reason for the comparative brevity of this kata is that it is only a part of a much longer one, now lost. The name means 'King's Crown' and it is notable for the use of neko ashi dachi (cat stance), which itself is for close quarters combat. The kata also includes some interesting trapping techniques from 00:29 - 00:41 which, along with the final 'double punch' technique reinforce the idea that when combined with the longer range techniques, the overall form was intended to teach the concept of closing the distance from long range into trapping range. (Please refer to my review of Four Shades of Black for more information on a conceptual approach to the understanding of kata).

Master Kanawaza performing Wankan

Gojushiho Sho

Gojushiho Sho is the minor (Sho) version of Gojushiho, as compared to the Dai (major) version. The pattern of movement described on the floor in both forms is very similar and in some cases some combinations of techniques are almost identical. Both kata require tremendous skill and stamina to perform well, but whereas the Dai version is somewhat lighter, the Sho version is seen as being heavier with a greater emphasis on the practitioner becoming rooted to the floor and drawing power upwards. The form blends slow, purposeful techniques with bursts of speed and is a beautiful form to watch when performed by an expert. It is believed that both the Dai and Sho versions provided Itosu sensei with some of the basic techniques that appear in the Pinan / Heian series, along with movements taken from Kanku Dai and the elusive Channan kata.

The kata makes extensive use of neko ashi dachi (cat stance), a stance that was replaced in elementary level forms by the back stance. Cat stance is an excellent defensive posture to take while evading an incoming attack. It allows you to concentrate your weight on the supporting foot before launching forward to make an attack. In this sense, it is far more effective than a back stance.

Master Kanazawa performing Gojushiho Sho

Gojushiho Dai

Gojushiho Dai is one of two types of this kata - the Dai (Major) and Sho (Minor) versions. Both trace their origins back to Useishi, which also means 'fifty four (Go is five, ju is ten and shi is four, or 5 x 10 + 4 = 54). It seems that the form was known for a short time at least as Hotaku (Woodpecker) but that name, used by Funakoshi sensei, was another that didn't stick so the kata went with a different name but with the same meaning as the original. The name again suggests some influence at least of Buddhism, with 54 being half of the 108 'Defilements' in Buddhist philosophy, though I would argue that these numbers have a far older pedigree than an association with Buddhism would suggest (see also Nijushiho for a longer explanation).

There is an interesting and amusing story that in the JKA syllabus the Dai and Sho versions are reversed. This is due to a high ranking Japanese karateka announcing at an international competition that he would do one kata before promptly doing the other. So as not to embarrass him the Japanese created the fiction that he was in fact correct by uniformly changing the names to refer to the sister kata. Thus Gojushiho Dai became Gojushiho Sho and vice versa. Kanazawa sensei (featured in the video below) was of higher rank and refused to follow suite. The Gojushiho Dai demonstrated below is therefore consistent with the original.

Master Kanazawa performing Gojushiho Dai

Kanku Sho

Kanku Sho is another creation from Itosu sensei inspired by the older Kanku Dai. Like other forms from Itosu, this form is built on 'basic' techniques and combinations while introducing more advanced techniques to complement what the karateka has already studied.

Like Bassai Sho the practitioner is apparently introduced to the concept of weapons defense (at 1:05). The kata also includes a 'sky viewing moment' at 1:23. This reverses the opening movement of Kanku Dai where the practitioner looks ahead; in this form the karateka is looking behind him.

This pattern is popular in competitions owing to its dynamic nature.

Master Kanazawa performing Kanku Sho

Bassai Sho

Bassai Sho is the younger sibling to the original Bassai Dai. Created by Itosu sensei the form is less forceful than the 'dai' version. It was brought to mainland Japan by Funakoshi sensei who changed the name from the Okinawan Passai to Bassai.

As with other Itosu kata this version introduces specific new movements (and through them, new concepts) that build on the existing catalog of techniques. Many of the movements are in fact 'basic' but they are presented in combination with other unique waza that is not seen elsewhere. In this case, one of the most notable introductions is an empty-hand defense against a bo (staff). In keeping with Shotokan fundamentals, the defense requires the practitioner to seize the initiative when threatened directly and to use economy of motion.

Master Kanazawa performing Bassai Sho

Nijushiho

Nijushiho is yet another kata that Funakoshi sensei changed the name of from the original Niseishi. In this case the new name stuck, though both words mean 'twenty-four' and describe the number of movements (not techniques) in the form. This number is reported to relate to the number 108, which is important in Buddhism as it represents the number of afflictions to the soul, as 108 can be divided by both '2' and '4' (though not 24 itself). I would go further than this however and suggest that the number 24 is related to the precession of the equinoxes, the prime number of which is 72 which indicates the number of years it takes the earth to 'wobble' one degree (24 x 3 = 72). The number 108 is itself first and foremost a precessional number (72 + 36 = 108) and had significance a long time before Buddhism emerged. The number 108 is found in various martial arts, such as in the 108 moves of the wing chun kung fu wooden dummy form.

This form entered the Shotokan syllabus via Master Nakayama, Funakoshi sensei's successor. He learned it from the Shito ryu master Kenwa Mabuni (along with Gojushiho). This kata does not appear therefore in Karate Do Kyohan and was a later addition.

Some hold that the pattern was created by Aragaki sensei (1840-1920) while Patrick McCarthy notes that it is used in an least one school of Fujian Crane kung fu. What does seem credible is that the Okinawan version of this kata was created by Aragaki sensei, though who he learned the original from is unknown. Aragaki sensei is also said to have been the source of the kata Sanchin, Seisan and Sochin and was a teacher of Mabuni sensei (Shito ryu) and Kanryo Higaonna (Goju ryu).

Anko Azato is also known to have performed a version of this kata which is less linear. What is strange is that Funakoshi sensei studied with Azato sensei but didn't apparently learn this form from him or, if he did, he didn't teach it. Shotokan employs the more linear version from the Aragaki line. Historian Harry Cook speculates that Funakoshi may have studied this kata and then later forgotten it.

Master Kanazawa performing Nijushiho

Meikyo

Meikyo was originally called Rohai and was developed by Kosaku Matsumora in the Tomari te tradition. Itosu sensei then took the core form and developed three variations. These three kata can still be seen today but in Shotokan Funakoshi sensei took the three patterns of Itosu sensei and reversed his master's creation process, distilling the three forms into one again (though this is vastly different to the original developed by Matsumora sensei and in fact is almost unrecognizable as having developed from a common kata when compared to the Shito ryu and Wado ryu versions of Rohai. It should also be mentioned that the Shito and Wado versions also differ from one another).

Funakoshi sensei also took this chance to rename the kata Meikyo, which means 'bright mirror' and is said to refer to the need to constantly polish one's basic techniques even when learning more advanced waza. The form blends movements that are unique with others that are the most fundamental to Shotokan.

Following Kanazawa sensei you can see Funakoshi sensei himself doing the form way back in 1924.

Master Kanazawa performing Meikyo

Sochin

Sochin came down to the Shotokan syllabus from Seisho Arakaki, a Naha te master. Unusually though it was not introduced by Funakoshi sensei but by his son, Yoshitaka 'Gigo' Funakoshi, a man many people believe to have played a key part in deepening the stances of Shotokan and making it more dynamic and 'harder' in style as compared to its Okinawan roots. Still, this was another kata that Funakoshi sensei tried to change the name for mainland Japanese, and this time he succeeded. Formerly the pattern was called Hakko.

This form itself is a very powerful kata. The name means 'Tranquil Force' and the pattern promotes the use of a wide, deep, powerful stance that roots the practitioner to the ground making him supposedly immovable in the face of danger.

Master Kanazawa performing Sochin

Hangetsu

Hangetsu means 'Half moon' though originally it was known as Seisan. In its variations it is the most widely practiced form across all the different karate styles. The opening movements, and moreso the breathing and pelvic movements, closely resemble Sanchin, though this form switches to swifter, lighter techniques towards the end.

The kata introduces a stance suitable for close quarters fighting and the look and feel of the first half of the form are distinctly 'un-Shotokan'. However, the pattern has a strong pedigree and it is known that it was being taught by Seisho Aragaki by 1867. This kata or, more precisely the Uechi ryu version of Seisan is what led author Nathan Johnson to the conclusion that it was originally intended to be a sai form but came to be performed without the actual weapons. This is covered in the book The Great Karate Myth.

Master Kanazawa performing Hangetsu

Gankaku

Gankaku was originally named Chinto, supposedly after a shipwrecked Chinese sailor trapped on Okinawa who taught it to 'Bushi' Matsumura. Funakoshi sensei again changed the name for his mainland Japanese audience with the new name meaning 'Crane on a Rock', so-called because of the distinctive one-legged stance employed at different points. The form may have its origins in Five Ancestors Fist, a type of kung fu popular in Southern China and which includes a form named Chen Tou, which is pronounced Chinto in Japanese. Movement #10 (at 0:37) is highly reminiscent of Crane style kung fu poses, though this is much clearer in the original Okinawan versions where the same move is executed in a cat stance rather than a front stance. The kata also continually returns to the theme of taking a stance balanced on one-leg, again highly reminiscent of a crane and a (slight) variation of a stance found in Crane kung fu.

The kata was practiced in both the Tomari te and Shuri te schools before it came down to Funakoshi sensei and entered the Shotokan syllabus. Here the form was modified and became more linear. It is a difficult kata to perform well and a popular choice in competition.

Master Kanazawa performing Gankaku

Enpi

Enpi is sometimes also written and spoken as Empi. The name can be literally translated as 'Flying Swallow', though the original name of the form was Wansu. This was another kata that had its name changed by Funakoshi sensei when karate came to mainland Japan, though in this case the name change stuck.

It is believed that the kata can trace its origins in Chinese martial arts, from which it entered the Tomari te system. The predominant theory on its development is that it was a kata practiced and taught by the Chinese diplomat Wang Ji, known as Wanshu in Okinawa, who arrived in Tomari in 1683. Wang Ji practiced Fujian White Crane kung fu and taught connections in the Tomari area. It came to Funakoshi sensei via Itosu sensei.

Older versions of Wansu / Wanshu are almost unrecognizable when compared to the Shotokan version, though there are some more recent interpretations - such as the version found in Wado ryu - that are somewhere between the more traditional Okinawan versions and the more recent Japanese ones. Certainly the Shotokan kata makes greater use of pauses and slowed movements but suffers from being less complex and nuanced than those forms seen in pure Okinawan styles.

Master Kanazawa performing Enpi

Chinte

Chinte supposedly traces its origins back to Chinese martial arts though when it precisely entered into Okinawan karate is unknown. The form is an unusual one in the Shotokan syllabus as it continues to employ more circular movements, thereby indicating that it escaped, at least to an extent, the simplification process carried out by Itosu sensei and Funakoshi sensei that make many traditional kata more linear and direct and shaped the development of Shotokan as we know it today.

Funakoshi sensei also tried to change the name of this kata once in Japan to Shoin but the new name never caught on. The original name literally means 'Strange hands' and the pattern emphasizes hand movements above all else, employing a wide variety of different strikes to weak (pressure) points on the opponent. The kata emphasizes close-quarters-no-rules combat and is a very useful and interesting one to learn from the point of view of investigating karate as a pure martial art.

The final stages of the kata are a little confusing as they involve the practitioner hopping back to his original starting point. Precisely why this is done is unknown though one suggestion is that the original closing movements have been forgotten and lost and the hops simply return the karateka back to his original starting position, thereby making everything 'neat and tidy' as all the other forms begin and end in the same position.

The kata was not one of those described in Karate Do Kyohan.

Master Kanazawa performing Chinte

Jitte

Jitte is the third 'temple' kata (along with Jion and Jiin). The original name was Jutte, meaning 'ten' (ju) 'hands' (te) but is most commonly referred to nowadays as Jitte though the meaning of 'Ten Hands' has remained. Funakoshi sensei tells us that the name implies that a person skilled in this form is as competent in fighting as ten men. The kata comes down to us through the Tomari te stream and is believed to have its origins in China, though clearly more Okinawan style movements have either been added or have replaced whatever was there originally. The pattern does however start with the distinctive left hand covering the clenched right fist.

The most common bunkai interpretation of the movements that are unique to this kata is that it is to be used against a bo (staff) wielding opponent but it has also been argued that in fact the kata was originally intended to practice bo techniques in an empty-handed fashion. In other words, certain of the movements are best understood if the practitioner actually himself held a bo. That at least some of the older kata of various styles were (arguably) intended to represent movements with actual weapons has been picked up on by Nathan J. Johnson in his book The Great Karate Myth. Of particular interest are the opening movements. According to Nathan Johnson, who examines Sanchin and Seisan (Hangetsu in Shotokan), the hand movements replicate how a pair of sai would have been held. This is more clearly seen in Seisan but, Johnson argues, these movements have been replicated and modified in Sanchin so that the lower hand is now palm down rather than palm up - as seen in movement #2 in the video below. Of further interest here is that the name of the kata is also the name of a weapon very similar to the sai except it has only one prong (for catching and controlling another weapon) whereas the sai has two prongs.

Master Kanazawa performing Jitte

Jion

Jion is another kata from the Itosu line, taught to him by 'Bushi' Matsumura and then passed in turn from Itosu sensei to Funakoshi sensei. It is believed that the form has its origins in China but was modified, as many patterns were, by Itosu and this more-linear version is the one that has come down to us through the Shotokan school.

The kata begins from a stance with the left hand covering the right fist, indicating a Chinese origin and, more specific to Okinawa, a Tomari te root. This stance is seen in other forms such as Bassai Dai and demonstrates a common place of origin.

The exact meaning of the name has been lost. It is taught as one of the three 'temple' kata (the others being Jiin and Jitte) but is is unlikely that the name is a reference to a famous Buddhist temple of the same name on mainland Japan. One author has seen a different kanji (Chinese character) used in reference to this form, though using the same pronunciation, to mean 'to develop techniques to condition the body.

Master Kanazawa performing Jion

Jiin

Jiin is another of the 'temple' forms (along with Jion and Jitte) and its name means 'temple ground'. As with the others in the series, the pattern opens with with left hand placed over the clenched right fist, making it a member of the Tomari te school with origins almost certainly in China. Unlike Jion and Jitte however, this kata entered the Shotokan syllabus at a later date. In Funakoshi's master text Karate Do Kyohan there is no mention of this kata. When it was taught Funakoshi tried to change the name to Shokyo but it didn't stick.

Like many of the Shotokan forms this varies from the original as taught on Okinawa and movements at the end of this kata are missing as compared to the purer Shorin ryu version. In the original there is an upward block / lunge punch combination executed first to the practitioner's left and then repeated again 180 degrees to his right.

Master Kanazawa performing Jiin

Kanku Dai

Kanku Daiis yet another one that Funakoshi sensei changed the name of when he brought karate to mainland Japan. On Okinawa the form was known as Kusanku or Kwanku and was believed to refer to the name of the Chinese martial artist who first taught it. It is believed that the pattern was passed down from the man Kusanku to 'Tode' Sakugawa, then from 'Bushi' Matsumura to Itosu sensei from whom Funakoshi sensei learned it.

Popular opinion holds that the five Pinan / Heian kata were developed by Itosu sensei on Okinawa to include key movements from Kusanku (perhaps along with the two 'lost' Channan forms) interspersed with more basic techniques to make teaching easier to larger and younger classes. Master Kousaku Yokota (Shotokan Karate Myths) suggests that Heian Nidan is a simplified version of this kata in its entirety. Consider also that Shotokan's Heian Nidan is still taught as Pinan Shodan on Okinawa, or the first form learned perhaps betraying the importance of Kushanku on its development and the key role this latter pattern plays in the Itosu system.

Author Nathan Johnson offers a very different idea in his book The Great Karate Myth when he argues that originally this kata was meant to be performed with a pair of sai. In particular, the 'knife hand block' is interpreted by Johnson to be a block with a sai. In the Okinawan version this move is performed in cat stance which, Johnson again argues, allows a swift front kick to kick away the weapon trapped in the prong of the sai or to kick the weapon wielding hand. As with his theories on the Tekki kata however, he offers no direct evidence for his hypothesis.

Johnson also notes that we do not in fact know if 'To te' Sakugawa learned Kusanku 'as is' or if his version is a synthesis of something (or various things) he was taught.

The name of the kata means 'To look to the sky', a reference to the simple but compelling opening movements of the form as the arms are slowly raised with a small triangle formed between the hands.

Master Kanazawa performing Kanku Dai