Sanchin

Sanchin is perhaps the oldest kata to be found in all the different karate styles. Older versions can be clearly still seen in Southern Chinese kung fu styles (unlike many other karate kata which claim to have originated in China but which cannot be proven to have done so). The kata means 'three battles' and what this means precisely is unknown, though a common interpretation is that it refers to the 'battle' to control one's body, mind and spirit. In Chinese the kata is called saam ching and may trace its roots back to the Southern Shaolin Temple and perhaps, as author Nathan Johnson suggests in Barefoot Zen, to Bodhidharma himself, or at least to his inspiration as the founder of Ch'an / Zen Buddhism.

Whether Buddhist in origin or not, the kata also incorporates Taoist 'Immortality' ritual aspects and emphasizes forced breathing in conjunction with a distinctive pelvic movement whereby the pelvic bone is retracted on the in breath and pushed forward on the out breath.

The Goju ryu version of the kata performed by Master Morio Higaonna emphasizes dynamic tension and this is tested - sometimes severely - by heavy slapping. This may not be healthy (and in my opinion, it isn't) as the body is simultaneously starving the muscles of oxygen (through the tension) while also depriving the body as a while of oxygen (through the slowed, forced breathing). Author Mark Bishop draws attention to the fact that several high ranking Okinawan karateka have died at relatively young ages (and consider that Okinawan people currently have the highest average life expectancy anywhere in the world) of complications relating to their heart condition. He himself eventually quit the practice of the kata for this reason and I have also read that this practice is rejected by Chinese martial artists who execute their similar form without the forced breathing and dynamic tension. This kata is seen to represent the 'hard' aspect of Goju, with Tensho being the softer side.

Master Morio Higaonna performing Sanchin

Zen Shaolin Karate

Nathan Johnson is a British karateka experienced in both karate and kung fu. At the time of writing (2010) he holds a 5th dan black belt and a 4th degree black sash in kung fu. He is a professional instructor and regularly teaches seminars around the world. He is a regular contributor to international selling magazines and has made various high profile public appearances. He is also the author of three books to date, Zen Shaolin Karate, Barefoot Zen and The Great Karate Myth.

I will be critically reviewing all three of Johnson's books but would like to start now by breaking precedent and recording my conclusion first before going on to discuss the different books individually.

I do this because I detect that in all three books a fundamental pattern of presentation can be recognized and this impacts on my reviews of all the titles in the same way.

Johnson is primarily famous for arguing that the Naifuanchin / Tekki kata are a record of stand-up grappling movements intended for use in civil law keeping with their origins in China. To make this clear: he rejects the idea that the 'kicks' and 'punches' in this kata are indeed kicks and punches. Rather they mimic the hand / arm movements needed to subdue an attacker in close proximity to the defender and have more in common with Chinese chin na than modern day karate with its emphasis on striking. In my opinion, this is the strongest argument and most well-thought-out idea he presents.

Another key kata Johnson investigates is Sanchin, famous in Goju ryu and Uechi ryu. This is where, to me, his writing and ideas become confusing and not-so-well-thought-out. Initially, in Zen Shaolin Karate, he presents the idea that like Naifuanchin / Tekki, the movements of Sanchin are best understood as close-quarters-combat techniques that have a direct relationship to, and are best understood through the practice of, pushing hands (kakie in Okinawan martial arts). This in itself is fair enough, but he continues to examine Sanchin in Barefoot Zen and concludes that the entire kata, while having a combative element, should be primarily understood as being a Buddhist meditative method. He then rejects this (more-or-less) completely in The Great Karate Myth and concludes that Sanchin, among other kata, should be seen as a weapons kata (specifically as a sai kata) performed without the actual weapon.

The problem with his arguments - and the reason he is so easily able to change his principle argument so drastically from book to book - is that he at no time presents any historical evidence for any of his conclusions. For example, that Sanchin can be performed while using sai is a fair point...but this doesn't necessarily mean that it was intended to be used with sai. I can perform Heian Shodan with sai, but that doesn't necessarily mean it was designed as a sai kata. Of course, I can also perform the same kata while using tonfa, but again, that doesn't by default make it a tonfa kata. I could also wield one or two tanto daggers and...well, you get the idea.

This, as you will discover upon reading further, is a major criticism of all his work. But having said that, I do at the same time feel that he offers some tremendously interesting approaches to training that - whether historically valid or not - are still of great interest.

Anyone who has been training for a few years will have experienced - with the best will in the world - the 'Kanku Dai...again...' syndrome. Simply put, and this is as true for martial arts as with any discipline, you reach a point where your learning curve becomes almost flat and your time spent on a plateau in learning becomes longer. At times like these injecting some 'spice' into your training can be just what you need. From this point of view, I believe Johnson's work is highly significant because it is thought provoking and opens up valid areas of training and interest to the average karateka who just wants to enjoy his training (and isn't too concerned about whether it is historically authentic or not).

Picking up a pair of sai and examining Kanku Dai from the perspective of it being a weapons kata will, I feel, be of enormous interest and benefit to anyone. Approaching the kata (not just Sanchin - though Johnson identifies some Buddhist symbolism specific to this kata) as dynamic meditation is also of interest, and indeed is something that I myself teach. Similarly incorporating pushing hands into your karate practice is without doubt going to be of benefit and will help you understand Naifuanchin / Tekki and Sanchin in new ways.

Before I continue, this is perhaps an opportune moment for me to clarify how my own teaching differs from that of Johnson, and especially the ideas he presents in Barefoot Zen.

In The Way of the Enlightened Zen Warrior I am investigating similarities at a neurological level between those experienced in static meditation and in dynamic meditation. I make no claim for any historical authenticity with regard to karate being directly related to the Shaolin Temple or Buddhism. Nor do I claim that a martial art (karate or otherwise) is the only method of affecting the balance between one's brain hemispheres. Long distance running, as an example, has many an anecdote of athletes having all kinds of 'spiritual' experiences. Furthermore, in the case of historical figures, I am interested in making a comparison between their descriptions of 'divine communion' and those descriptions provided by people today (who we know have had their dominant brain hemisphere changed). For an early exploration of this please read my essay Jesus, Mohammed and the Zen Method. Now, getting back to Zen Shaolin Karate...

So, before I begin my review of Zen Shaolin Karate proper and then progress onto Johnson's other books, I would like you to bear what I have written above in mind. In short, I do have reservations about the lack of historical evidence and Johnson's apparent need to have what he is writing seen as being the 'authentic' take on karate but at the same time I also strongly recommend his work for anyone looking to open up new areas of interest in their training.

Zen Shaolin Karate

Zen Shaolin Karate comes in at 240 pages split into six chapters. The chapters include Philosophy and History, Basics, Saam Chin, Nai Fuan Chin, Pushing Hands and Final Thoughts. The book is supported with excellent and extensive black and white photographs that complement the text well. Zen Shaolin Karate is much more of a 'how to' book than either Barefoot Zen or The Great Karate Myth are. On balance I would estimate that the photographs perhaps take up slightly more of the page count than the actual text does.

Chapter One - Philosophy and History

Zen Shaolin Karate starts off with a gentle introduction of the Shaolin Temple and the Shaolin Way, quickly introducing Ch'an / Zen Buddhism and attempting to establish a link between this meditative spiritual practice and karate. Johnson argues that this link can be seen in the practice of 'pushing hands' (kakie) which, the author argues, is a form of Moving Zen. According to Johnson this practice was never intended to have a combative application as such, but was meant to lead the aspirant into contact with 'the great Void.' Precisely what the 'great Void' is is not detailed and no historical evidence is provided to back up the claim. It is more of an assertion than a well-made point. Johnson wants the reader to believe that the idea of fighting Shaolin monks is a fiction created first in China and then promoted in kung fu movies. He sees the idea of an ordained Buddhist monk doubling as a warrior monk as being a contradiction in terms and, therefore, an impossibility. From what I have discovered on the internet however the Shaolin monks did fight and got around the problem of contradicting their non-violent lifestyle by rewriting their code of conduct. I certainly know too that during Japan's civil war period (sengoku jidai) there were plenty of warrior monks (and armed lay members) bent on violence and empowering themselves.

Zen Shaolin Karate next turns to the history of karate on Okinawa and declares that the kata are primarily derived from Chinese sources and that practice originally included t'ui shou, or 'pushing hands'. Moving to mainland Japan however these approaches to training were lost and karate sparring moved to a longer range, influenced by kendo.

Johnson continues in Zen Shaolin Karate and makes a crucial point. He states that because we know so little before the beginning of the eighteenth century (the time of 'Tode' Sakugawa) and because the ancient masters left no records, the only directions we an follow are the ancient kata themselves.

On the face of it, this would appear to be a fair point and I agree that, at least until (read: if) any more documents are ever uncovered, the kata need to be our first area of investigation. But Johnson is here ignoring a primary source that we do have: the Bubishi.

The Bubishi is a collection of essays on various aspects of fighting, including strategy and technique, medicine, history and philosophy. The Bubishi is an important document in the investigation of the rationale behind the creation of karate for the simple reason that it actually is a document. It is all we have in written form to guide us in deciphering the sometimes obscure techniques we learn and practice. What the Bubishi makes clear - and what Johnson fails to mention in Zen Shaolin Karate - is that the Chinese kung fu styles that karate is said to have been influenced by were highly practical fighting methods more akin to what we see in MMA gyms today than the point fighting of semi-contact tournaments. From the articles contained in the Bubishi it is clear that while the kung fu styles commented on included joint locks and take downs, they were also clearly intended to be striking arts using hand and leg techniques (to attack vital points where possible). It is reasonable to conclude that the same rationale lies behind the application of the techniques found within the various kata of different karate styles. I will return to the neglect of the evidence found in the Bubishi in the future as the book is omitted as evidence in Barefoot Zen also and is only briefly mentioned in the second half of The Great Karate Myth. To put that into perspective for you: we have to read over 680 pages on the application of kata movements before the most important document related to the application of kata movements is even mentioned (and Barefoot Zen is a 240 page A4-sized book with a far higher word count per page than either Zen Shaolin Karate or The Great Karate Myth).

So, while I agree that an investigation of the kata are vital to improving our understanding of how karate should be applied as a fighting art I also feel - and here I am at odds with Johnson - that this investigation should be made in conjunction with a close reading of the Bubishi.

Johnson concludes the first chapter of Zen Shaolin Karate with the observation that, to the old masters, function dictated form. In other words, the movements seen in the kata all have a function and are not simply present in a kata for no reason.

Chapter Two - Basics

Zen Shaolin Karate continues by introducing the basics that will allow you to re-evaluate your practice of Sanchin and / or Naifuanchin while also introducing pushing hands. Johnson makes the reader aware that modern science promotes the idea that the best warm up is to replicate the movements you will be doing more intensely later on but just starting at a slower pace and then increasing the range of motion if needed.

Zen Shaolin Karate then identifies and describes the stances you need to understand (and uses good sized pictures throughout to help make the point). Once understood Zen Shaolin Karate moves on to describe various (basic) striking and kicking techniques and concludes with some rolling practice (as opposed to break falls). The latter inclusion is particularly relevant to the safe practice of Naifuanchin as the aggressor's arms are controlled and twisted in a manner that will force him to the floor and require him to twist with the pressure according to Johnson's innovative applications.

Chapter Three - Saam Chin

Here we start to get to the real meat of Zen Shaolin Karate. Saam Chin (Sanchin) means 'Three Conflicts'. Johnson - along with numerous other karateka and Southern Chinese kung fu practitioners - holds this kata in high regard, stating 'In terms of meaning, practicality, and simplicity it is unsurpassed'.

Johnson presents the idea that the 'three conflicts' refer to the conflict that is said to exist between body, mind and spirit. His ideas next diverge from mine but I will present his faithfully and ask the reader to refer to my notes on Martial Arts Meditation for my personal definitions of the following terms.

In Zen Shaolin Karate Johnson argues that the conflict between the body, mind and spirit is dealt with in three stages:

* Mushin - Non-analytical thinking in urgent situations; a state of spontaneous response in combat

* Zanshin - Remaining mind or awareness; automatic awareness

* Samadhi - Total absorption

Johnson argues that the combination of mushin and zanshin create samadhi, identified in Zen Shaolin Karate as spirit. Precisely which stages are to be identified with the body and mind elements of the body-mind-spirit trilogy is not made clear and the confusion caused by the use of Japanese terms (mushin and zanshin) and the Sanskrit term samadhi is never resolved; nor, bearing in mind that Saam Chin is of Chinese origin, are the terms related to Chinese thought / philosophy. I therefore conclude that the idea that the 'Three Conflicts' refer to a body - mind - spirit conflict is highly speculative. In Zen Shaolin Karate Johnson simply glosses over the fact that no one seems to really know what the 'Three Conflicts' actually are and that really he is offering nothing more than an opinion, as opposed to 'the gospel truth'.

Continuing however, Johnson goes on to argue that achieving samadhi is made possible simply through the mindful practice of Saam Chin. This includes the use of correct breathing techniques - and again he uses a Sanskrit term in relation to a Chinese form - called pranayama, which means to restrain the breath, energy or spirit.

Less my reader think I am being over-precise in my criticism of his terminology, please consider that Zen Shaolin Karate is only the first in three books (the others being Barefoot Zen and The Great Karate Myth. A central premise presented in both Zen Shaolin Karate and Barefoot Zen is that Saam Chin is, at its heart, a Buddhist dynamic meditative technique. The Japanese terms used are obviously historically incompatible with the kata and the Sanskrit terms used are related to Hinduism originally, and not Buddhism (Buddhism grew from the rejection of the fundamental - and pre-existing - Hindu belief that there is such a thing as an observer...Buddhism asserts there is ultimately no observer and nothing to be observed...no thing). Even more than that, both samadhi and pranayama are related to yoga which would suggest that - if these terms are in fact accurate and appropriate - that Saam Chin is a form of yoga. I appreciate that in modern times such phrases have been 'collected' and tend to be used indiscriminately but as Zen Shaolin Karate is claiming to be based on historically accurate information, I would have appreciated a higher degree of, well, accuracy.

Zen Shaolin Karate goes on to examine the principles and techniques that make up Sanchin. Johnson (wisely in my opinion) discusses Sanchin 'breathing' and rejects the typical heavy breathing demonstrated in Okinawan and Japanese versions of the kata, noting that the breath should be deep but light and quiet and never forced.

Johnson next discusses the Saam Chin stance and relates correct posture to correct breathing. The next point discussed in Zen Shaolin Karate is the 'unbendable arm' which is created through a natural elastic tension rather than a heavy muscular contraction. This is supposedly dependent on one's ability to direct ki (chi) from one's abdomen through one's body and into the arm and through the fingertips.

Zen Shaolin Karate next discusses the 'impassable ring', one of three defensive circles introduced in Saam Chin. The first introduced is the 'middle circle', or the area within your arms when performing pushing hands, and it creates a buffer zone between your body and your opponent's attacks. In effect it should be a non-collapsible barrier (owing to the use of the 'unbendable arm') around which you redirect all incoming attacks.

Within this buffer zone your body will turn, pivot and step, thereby creating a second imaginary circle. Then you have the second (lower) circle which is described in Zen Shaolin Karate as being the area between your feet. This circle gives you stability.

The final, third (upper) circle is the cycle of catching, trapping, detaining and counterattacking movements introduced via the circular block found at the end of Saam Chin.

Next Johnson describes the coordination that Saam Chin teaches us. In the first section we practice moving the arms independently and individually; in the second section the arms are moved together and mimic one another; in the third section the arms are moved simultaneously but each arm performs a different movement.

The next principle introduced in Zen Shaolin Karate is very interesting and will be familiar to aikidoka. Johnson notes that withdrawing from or knocking aside an attacking force means wasting its energy. Instead Johnson teaches the karateka to intercept and merge with an attack, trapping the limb with the second hand then using a palm heel strike (with the original intercepting hand) to return the (amplified) force. This requires heightened sensitivity and is why Johnson praises the use of pushing hands practice over the more common sparring found in many dojo.

Zen Shaolin Karate moves on to introduce a single offensive technique: the palm heel strike. Johnson advocates the use of the palm heel as it requires no conditioning and is more flexible in its use.

This chapter of Zen Shaolin Karate continues with a detailed and very well presented demonstration of Saam Chin. Of note here is that Johnson uses the original finger strike rather than the more modern punch seen in the Goju ryu version of Sanchin.

The chapter on Saam Chin concludes with an examination of applications for the kata. Johnson is keen to note in Zen Shaolin Karate that there are no offensive techniques in Saam Chin, and only one counter-attack, the palm heel strike. The finger strikes (nukite) / punches are not described here as either offensive techniques nor as counter-attacks, but Johnson fails to explain why not (though I will note here that in The Great Karate Myth he will present an argument that these same techniques are to be done gripping a reversed sai and used to punish the hands, wrist or forearm of an attacker wielding a weapon).

Johnson also rejects the use of combinations in Zen Shaolin Karate and argues that failure to trap and immobilize an opponent and thereafter break his balance or control him in some way leads to the use of speed, aggression and power, rather than the skills developed through pushing hands and practice of Saam Chin. I think he is making a fair point here, but again, as I noted above, he makes no reference to the Bubishi which covers fighting techniques from Southern Chinese kung fu styles, and these styles include the practice of Saam Chin.

To help understand the defensive potential of Saam Chin Zen Shaolin Karate discusses the midline. Johnson states that attacks are dealt with simply according to which side of an imaginary midline you have drawn down your body and separating it into two halves. Any attack originating from the same side of the midline is defended against in the same manner.

Zen Shaolin Karate continues to explain this concept in more detail noting that attacks originating from the right side of your midline are dealt with first by the right hand, then the left hand (such as executing a trap or grab). The right hand is therefore free to deal with a second attack and so on. The intercepting hand Johnson identifies as being the significator.

Zen Shaolin Karate next adds stepping and evasion into the mix. Johnson covers some basic pointers of how to combine footwork with an intercept / trap / counter approach. Again, all well illustrated and providing some good ideas on how to deal with some simple attacks. At the same time though, the attacks are very simple and it doesn't look like the attacker is trying too hard.

This brings the chapter on Saam Chin to a close. Some good ideas and lots of pointers to work with, but also a lot of potential objections to Johnson's argument in Zen Shaolin Karate are simply omitted, and as I stated in my introduction, this is a continuous feature of his work.

Chapter Four - Naifuanchin

Next Zen Shaolin Karate moves on to consider the Naifuanchin / Tekki kata. These kata are now taught in three separate parts but Zen Shaolin Karate rejects the idea that this was how they were originally intended to be practiced. Johnson believes that the three sections were intended to be performed as one long, continuous form. He goes into more detail as to how he arrives at this conclusion in The Great Karate Myth but a big clue is the lack of formal openings in the second and third sections...these kata have a feeling that they are picking up from something preceding.

Zen Shaolin Karate gives a little background on the presumed history of the form, but notes that the precise origins are obscure. In Zen Shaolin Karate Johnson notes that the movements may have developed from either T'ang lang kung fu (Praying Mantis) or Ch'in-na (a Chinese stand up grappling system). (Johnson seems to go with the view that Naifuanchin is descended from Ch'in-na by the time he writes The Great Karate Myth. This kata - whether performed as a long, continuous form or divided into three sections - formed the bedrock of training for those involved in the Shuri te school. It is, in this sense at least, somewhat equivalent to Saam Chin of Naha te which also served as the beginning and the end of kata study.

One of Johnson's early observation of Naifuanchin, and detailed in Zen Shaolin Karate, is that is seems to be focused on escaping from a crossed arm position. Johnson acknowledges that this may seem impractical, but he argues that training in this method teaches the essential skills of joint manipulation, leading an opponent and timing throws. He also puts forward the idea that the techniques can be improvised to use only one hand, with the second hand unbalancing the opponent more directly. Johnson provides examples of what he is talking about later in the book, but he is quick to point out in Zen Shaolin Karate that it is up to the reader to experiment and discover things for himself.

Johnson continues Zen Shaolin Karate by more closely examining Naifuanchin as a grappling form. Johnson acknowledges that recording grappling, locking and throwing techniques in a kata can be problematic. He argues that this problem is solved in part by focusing on the application of combined grips that are operated from a crossed-arm position.

Given this, Zen Shaolin Karate argues that Naifuanchin is not a sequence of self-defense reponses, but a systematic record of (stand up) grappling techniques and grip reversals (meaning that the person first gripping ends up being the one gripped).

Building on this basis continued study will lead to the discovery of variations, pivots, turns and steps.

Next Zen Shaolin Karate draws the reader's attention to a potentially very significant point overlooked (as far as I know) by everyone other than Johnson. Johnson introduces a unique and clearly obscure method of clenching the fist, which he labels the 'Naifuanchin fist' due to its apparent use in the kata of the same name. This is made by clenching your fingers into a fist as normal but the forefinger (and only the forefinger) is not folded up and instead the tip of the extended finger rests at the base of the thumb joint. For those of you who have a copy of Karate Do Kyohan this fist can be seen clearly on page 17 (Chapter Two - Fundamental Elements - The Fist). Funakoshi however identifies this fist as being the regular position your fingers should be held in (seiken) for punching attacks. In the same sequence of pictures he does however also describe what I think most people would consider to be a normal fist position, with all fingers clenched. Johnson cites other sources where this fist can be seen and further notes that some Shorin ryu stylists still use it to this day.

In modern karate however this fist has disappeared. By the time of the Best Karate series of books by Master Nakayama, this fist is no longer pictured or described. Johnson advises us that this is because attempting to strike a surface with this fist could lead to damage. Rather, the Naifuanchin fist is a method of practicing a grip used in grappling and is designed to promote strength.

The next section of Zen Shaolin Karate introduces a series of grips that are found within Naifuanchin, these being the reverse-hand grip, the overhand grip, the underhand grip, and the combined reverse-hand grip and overhand grip. Finally there is a small note on the straddle-leg stance.

At this point the reader is barely half way through Zen Shaolin Karate. The majority of the remainder of the book is comprised of an excellent series of photographs that show Nathan Johnson performing Naifuanchin, accompanied with an explanation. After each section (effectively Tekki Shodan, Tekki Nidan and Tekki Sandan) there is a detailed description of how those movements studied can be applied. These sections really bring to life what Johnson is arguing for in Zen Shaolin Karate and show how the movements of Naifuanchin work to control and subdue an opponent who has made a grab for your wrists. How practical the reader may consider the techniques to be is going to vary from person to person and I can readily understand why some may object to the apparently 'soft' responses detailed. In reading through Johnson's work though it will be revealed in Barefoot Zen and The Great Karate Myth that the author sees these techniques as having been designed for use by a civil defense force (policemen) to subdue but not injure a miscreant.

Chapter Five - Pushing Hands

As far as word count is concerned, this chapter of Zen Shaolin Karate is fairly light and again, much of the content is taken up with photographs and explanations of the photographs.

Johnson first points out that pushing hands (kakie) is the inheritance of all arts that have been influenced by kung fu originating in the Shaolin Temple and this, he seems to feel, includes Okinawan karate.

Pushing hands is a non-competitive method of increasing one's touch sensitivity. Two partners stand close to one another with one of their arms touching the opposite limb of the other. Then one person begins to exert a forward pressure which is accepted, controlled and redirected by the second person who then returns a similar force which is dealt with in the same way. This is the basic practice but more advanced forms can include pushes and pulls to unbalance an opponent, building up to simulated strikes, kicks, sweeps and even throws. It is this practice which Johnson believes tied both Saam Chin and Naifuanchin together and helps to create the freedom to express the more formal movements found in the kata.

Johnson notes that many karateka turn to arts like Tai Chi to experience pushing hands, and I am one of those people. The practice is deceptively difficult and it can take some time to develop one's sensitivity. I can definitely recommend it, whether you get into it via regular karate training or by looking outside at (most likely) a Chinese art. Johnson spends most of the rest of Zen Shaolin Karate examining how the movements and principles of both Saam Chin and Naifuanchin can be incorporated into pushing hands.

Chapter Six - Final Thoughts

Here Johnson highlights some maxims for the trainee and tells a short fictional story designed to give the reader something to ponder.

Zen Shaolin Karate finishes with a conclusion in which Johnson examines why the applications of the kata under discussion are missing. Essentially his conclusion is that no-one on Okinawa really knew what the applications were. Certainly there is no written record of any applications being available and anecdotal evidence indicates that Master Funakoshi was not teaching bunkai for the Tekki kata but at the same time the conclusion ignores the fact that Master Funakoshi studied each Tekki kata for three years at a time when kata were not viewed as being useful for developing one's spirit or one's will power. The kata were not intended as a form of aerobic exercise. Furthermore, as his death approached, it is reported that Master Funakoshi lamented the fact that karate seemed to have lost its roots and that the kata were no longer understood properly.

Whatever the truth is, Zen Shaolin Karate introduces some very interesting ideas that could potentially absorb the attention of a karate for years...Saam Chin, Naifuanchin, Kakie...but in the final analysis Johnson fails to prove his theory. The information he presents is excellent and thought provoking but he is never able to say with authority 'This is it! This is the correct application.' Instead he offers - like everyone else - his ideas and opinions. These are informed ideas and opinions certainly, but for a reader searching for the an accurate history of Saam Chin and / or Naifuanchin I am afraid Zen Shaolin Karate fails to provide the necessary evidence.

Zen Shaolin Karate is Nathan Johnson's first book. Be sure to check out Barefoot Zen and The Great Karate Myth for a development of his arguments.

Return to the top of Zen Shaolin Karate.

Barefoot Zen

Nathan Johnson`s second book picks up on the themes covered in his first book, Zen Shaolin Karate. Namely, the study and understanding of the kata Naifuanchin / Tekki and Sanchin. His understanding and explanation of Naifuanchin remains more or less the same as that described in Zen Shaolin Karate; that the form is intended to be used in a stand-up grappling situation in order to control and subdue an opponent, rather than as a ballistic kata containing a series of striking techniques. His ideas on Sanchin go further than those discussed in Zen Shaolin Karate. Here Johnson wishes to argue that the form is full of Buddhist symbolism and should be interpreted as first and foremost being a form of dynamic meditation. As I mentioned more fully in my introduction to Zen Shaolin Karate (please read it if you haven't already done so) Johnson's ideas are very thought provoking but ultimately he can offer no historical evidence to back up his claims. His treatment of Sanchin in particular is highly erratic from book to book for the simple reason that he never proves his point, allowing him to easily contradict his own conclusions at a later date. So while Sanchin in Barefoot Zen is Buddhist meditation by the time The Great Karate Myth is published, the same kata has become a method of practicing the use of a sai (a short trident like weapon ideal for countering a swordsman) without actually using the sai (this latter point is equally unsubstantiated by evidence).

This speculation is very interesting and along the way Johnson makes some very good points, but ultimately his books read more like elaborate 'How to...' manuals, as in 'How to use Sanchin for pushing hands' (Zen Shaolin Karate), 'How to use Sanchin as a Buddhist meditation method' (Barefoot Zen) and 'How to use Sanchin as a sai weapon kata' (The Great Karate Myth). To again repeat the point I made in the introduction to Zen Shaolin Karate, these ideas are not without merit and are interesting in and of themselves. I believe that karateka with a few years experience who are starting to tire of the repetition of the same-old, same-old, could do far worse than consult these books for inspiration and guidance in opening up a new area of training. I just continue to have reservations about the claims made to these approaches as being historically valid.

Barefoot Zen is text heavy and although it does include photographs to help explain the points being made, these are not as good in quality as those found in Zen Shaolin Karate. They do the job, but that's all. The book is 237 pages long, and that's A5 size paper, giving a higher word count per page. In addition to this is a page summarizing the irregularities in orthodox Shorin ryu kata followed by a good glossary, selected bibliography and an index. Barefoot Zen is divided into three sections and fourteen chapters.

The preface begins by introducing the main theory under discussion; that the various pushes, pulls and restraints (Note: not strikes) found within Southern Chinese kung fu styles and original Okinawan karate are to physically illustrate Buddhist notions of harmony and nonviolence. This 'physical Buddhism' was, according to Nathan Johnson, a development of Zen's 'wordless gesture'.

These observations then set the tone for Barefoot Zen.

Chapter One - Kung Fu and Karate: Modern Progeny of an Ancient Art

Chapter One of Barefoot Zen gets off to a good start by examining the wider context in which we practice our arts and the yet-to-be-proven theory that the arts grew up in a spiritualized atmosphere. An early point that is made here pretty much sums up my take on Johnson's work as a whole. He makes the very valid point that to a large extent the martial arts have been taken over by urban combat specialists who promote an air of violence, even if it is in direct response to violence perpetrated towards you. From there Johnson goes on to raise the question of what if the arts were not intended for fighting (as currently portrayed in much of the martial arts media)?

Here lies the dichotomy that I detect running throughout his work. Johnson makes a very good point that is highly relevant to contemporary society, and one that I agree with. I concur that much of the available media is about fighting (and often tooth-and-nail fighting at that). However, to me, this point stands alone as one well made and one to be aware of. Whether or not the arts were originally intended to be peace seeking pursuits doesn't matter to me and I do not feel the original inspiration for the fighting arts needs to impact our contemporary views. Johnson, I repeatedly feel, tries too hard to prove that his contemporary views are authentic (whether considering the Buddhist origins of the arts, or seeing Sanchin as a weapons kata and so on) when I feel there is no need to do so. I think he makes a series of excellent points that stand alone and remain thought provoking; it is when he goes about trying to prove his theories using historical evidence that he runs into trouble (because there is no historical evidence).

The first chapter of Barefoot Zen continues by introducing Zen Buddhism, noting that it is based on universal compassion and concluding that this is incompatible with 'Warrior Zen'. His theories are in direct opposition to my own here and my own teaching of Warrior Zen. This isn't really the place for me to express my own views to overshadow those of an author, except for me to say that while it is true I do not espouse Buddhism as such, it is equally true that I have not ensconced myself in a temple in order to stay 'enlightened'. I am far more influenced by a man like Yamaoka Tesshu than I am by the Buddha. My primary interest (in this particular area at least) is if, and how, karate (and other arts, not necessarily martial) can effect a change in cerebral dominance from the left hemisphere to the right hemisphere. I am interested in the 'spiritual' aspects of the arts more from a neurological perspective than from an historical one. This isn't to say any such historical discussion is of no interest to me, only that it is of secondary interest.

Essentially Johnson takes the view put forward by Patrick McCarthy who argues that while fighting arts no doubt existed in China prior to the establishment of the Shaolin Temple, it was in the temple that the fighting arts were merged with spiritual characteristics and a moral philosophy.

This conclusion forms the background for much of the work that will come.

Chapter Two - Wisdom, not Warfare

This chapter of Barefoot Zen begins by examining the Chinese kung fu roots of karate and makes a series of fair points; namely that Chinese teachers influenced the known development of karate on Okinawa and the the 'militarized' version of karate that we see today was not how it was originally taught or practiced. Japanese militarism developed hand-in-hand with nationalism and Johnson examines the appropriateness of Funakoshi sensei changing the kanji used to write karate from 'China Hand' to 'Empty Hand'. I have written about my views on this in the history and development of karate. Essentially I see the development of karate in a somewhat different light and do not hold the opinion that it - taken in its entirety - is the exclusive result of Chinese kung fu influences (though the original kata themselves are).

Johnson is critical of Funakoshi sensei in Barefoot Zen at this point for his writing in Karate Do Kyohan that to continue to call karate 'China Hand' was both inappropriate and degrading. I feel the situation was somewhat more complex than that however. First, the name change was first advocated by Hanashiro Chomo in 1905. Second, by 1936 (when Karate Do Kyohan was first published) Japan and China had already fought one war (1894-1895), Japan had expanded into Manchukuo / Manchuria and war was looming once again and would break out the following year over the Marco Polo Bridge Incident. Japanese militarists share most, if not all, the blame for these events, and Funakoshi sensei was caught up in a distinctly anti-Chinese climate. In these circumstances I can see why the term 'inappropriate' was used and can understand also why the term 'degrading' was also originally used. Less forgivable is that in the subsequent post-war edition the term 'degrading' was not removed (though I continue to see a case to be made for keeping the term 'inappropriate').

Johnson next deals successively with different misconceptions regarding the development of karate and makes a series of good points in Barefoot Zen. He discounts the idea that the art was intended for battlefield use to thwart Shimazu invaders, or that the art had any connection at all with the samurai class. He also points out that while changes were made by Okinawans in Okinawa, many of the changes have occurred during export from Okinawa itself to mainland Japan and other parts of the world. Johnson, in Barefoot Zen, sees these cultural shifts as taking karate successively further and further away from its Shaolin roots. This observation led Johnson to begin investigating the original source kata far more critically and in comparison to Chinese kung fu forms. He set up small research groups first at Southampton University and later at Oxford and Portsmouth.

I mention this - as the author does in Barefoot Zen - because later he will claim that his work is the result of 'research at Oxford University' which implies that it is academic in nature (and of the highest academic standard at that if we consider it to have taken place at Oxford University). What Nathan Johnson should perhaps state more accurately is that he set up training groups (as in makeshift dojo practice) at these universities (he was the senior instructor at Oxford University for seven years); these groups appear to have been of the variety you would find at the YMCA or in a local sports center; non-full time dojo that happened to run classes out of universities. There is nothing to suggest that his work (in any of his books) is the result of qualified academic research and in fact at no time in any of his books does he actually quote any academic texts (whether journals or books). I draw attention to this point because it seems to me that Johnson is attempting to plant the idea in the mind of the reader that his theories in Barefoot Zen are more substantial than they in fact are.

Johnson continued his research by specializing in three kata which he regards as being the core of Okinawan karate (as did Master Chojun Miyagi); these are Sanchin, Tensho / Rokusho and Naifunchin / Naihanchi / Tekki. The premise he presents in Barefoot Zen is that these forms evolved from the Shaolin Temple and that they are, first and foremost, a type of Zen 'wordless gesture'. His task then is to demonstrate an historical link between these kata and the Shaolin Temple. Shortly after this declaration he tells us that '[Naifuanchin] stands as a record that has preserved immutable truths for centuries....I do not think it valid for people to change one of history's messages because they've failed to understand its language'. How he knows that this form contains these immutable truths is not revealed; nor does he describe how he knows the form itself has remained unchanged (at least until recent times). Despite this lack of evidence, Barefoot Zen declares that these forms (and attendant training methods) were devised to produce a spiritual warrior rather than a super-fighter.

Chapter Three - The Sacred Science

In this chapter of Barefoot Zen Johnson introduces the idea of a Sacred Science. He uses this term to describe the collection of interconnected spiritual systems that have contributed to the formulation of Zen. He argues that such a science is both timeless and universal and serves the purpose of raining human consciousness to its highest level.

Here I do of course disagree with such a notion. Influenced as I am by the work of Dr Julian Jaynes and Tony Wright I do not see human consciousness as being fixed, but rather as something dynamic and something that continues to change (whether it is evolving is debatable) today. This also continues to explain in part why I am less concerned with the historical origins of karate vis a vis its purported Shaolin origins (whether those put forward in Barefoot Zen or otherwise). Basically if the theory put forward by Jaynes and Wright is correct then our consciousness has shifted since the time of Shaolin at a neurological level (for the most part with humanity becoming more and more left cerebral hemisphere dominant at the expense of right hemisphere contact). As a result the methods we need to use to restore contact with our right cerebral hemisphere will be in certain respects at least, different. Buddha for example encouraged the pursuance of a 'middle way' and rejected ascetic practices. While this may have worked for him, I have attempted to demonstrate that some 500 years later Jesus was forced to retreat into the desert and undergo a harsh period of meditation to establish full contact with his right cerebral hemisphere. Several hundred years later Mohammed followed a similar course as Jesus. I would argue that the need for more extreme, ascetic methods is a reflection of the continued shift to left brain hemisphere dominance which, as it becomes more total makes it harder for us to recontact our right brain hemisphere, thereby necessitating evermore extreme methods. In short, I reject that there is, in a pure sense, any such thing as a timeless spiritual teaching (though I do not deny that such teachings will have many things in common).

Johnson describes the teachings of the Sacred Sciences as being designed to erase, or reduce, the fear and doubt associated the the futility of life and an inevitable death. He continues in Barefoot Zen that practitioners are able to master negative instinctual behavior and one method for doing so is through the practice of Shaolin-inspired karate.

Nathan Johnson now goes into more detail with regard to why he believes karate kata were developed. He continues in Barefoot Zen stating that the original motivation for the Shaolin masters was not to develop a combative methodology but to 'simply' teach a monk how to deal with a physical force without resorting to aggression and without allowing that force to hurt you in some way. Johnson believes that through this practice of harmonizing with an incoming force the practitioner is able to enter the Tao, which he describes as 'the way of things'.

Seen from this perspective Johnson is frank in Barefoot Zen and states simply that if one's objective in training is to be able to fight then Shaolin-based arts are inappropriate as they will fail to provide a suitable answer. With this different purpose for the kata in mind the author believes that someone new or uninitiated can suffer confusion when practicing the forms for combat. Of course they don't make sense in a fight..they were never supposed to!! is the simple conclusion. As harming another is seen to go against the basic precepts of Buddhism Johnson feels that there can never be such a thing as a Buddhist art designed to mete out punishment against attackers.

At this point Johnson introduces some speculative evidence to support his idea that Sanchin is a non-violent form with its origins in the Shaolin Temple. In the video you can see Master Morio Higaonna performing a technique called mawashi uke at 01:36 - 01:44. First of all, consider the hand positions prior to the arms being thrust forward. One hand has the fingers pointed upward; the other has the fingers pointed down. These are, according to Johnson, representations of classical Indian mudras, specifically the Abhaya mudra (fingers up) and the Varada mudra (fingers down). As the arms are turned (performing what most people believe to be a block), Johnson argues that this circular movement is symbolically representing a Tibetan Buddhist ritual gesture known as 'turning the dharma wheel'. No specific evidence is provided, except that, to Johnson, it looks that way. Johnson believes that these gestures and postures help the practitioner to experience the 'Zen mind', which he describes in Barefoot Zen as the one seeing the interconnectedness of things and the oneness of it all (essentially describing the right cerebral hemisphere). Personally I found this very interesting, but as I have said before, only as an interesting point and not as an established fact.

The next section of Barefoot Zen is of particular interest to me as it continues the investigation of Zen and satori from the point of view of the two brain hemispheres.

Johnson begins by differentiating man from animal; while we share certain characteristics, humans - unlike animals - possess the unique ability to reflect on their experiences and actions. We are able to consider multiple options rather than follow a simple 'flight or fight' reaction (in most cases anyway, there may well be desperate situations where we are unable to consciously override our reptilian brain). Resulting from this we as a species hold our free will close to our hearts.

The ability to reflect is both a blessing and a curse. On the one hand we can reflect on the fact that we are alive and take joy in the moment; on the other hand further reflection leads us to conclude that one day we will die and, in some way, something will be lost. This can lead to anxiousness, helplessness and even fear. It is this duality, according to experts and endorsed by Johnson in Barefoot Zen that give rise to the spiritual impulse and, at a crude level, the desire to feel good about death.

According to Asian mystics this - feeling good about death - can be achieved through the harmonization of different aspects of our brains. On the one hand we have our two cerebral hemispheres which have somewhat different functions but which are nevertheless connected in different ways. We also have our lower, mid and upper level brains; the medulla oblongata (reptilian brain), the mid-brain (mammalian brain) and the cerebrum (the upper brain comprising of two hemispheres). Again, using a crude image, the aim of the mystics was to achieve harmony across the whole brain (left and right cerebral hemispheres) and up and down (from the reptilian brain up through the mammalian brain and onto the cerebrum).

The first technology to appear known to have attempted to solve this problem was (and is) yoga. Johson declares in Barefoot Zen that the Shaolin 'fighting' styles are a direct lineal descent from this ancient method of personal development.

Chapter Five - Trimarga: the Triple Path to Zen

Johnson states immediately that yoga, Buddhism and the Tao all contributed to the development of Zen. Yoga, he maintains, was the progenitor of the practices at the Shaolin Temple, while Taoism mingled with Mahayana Buddhism to create Chan (Zen) Buddhism.

Johnson explains in Barefoot Zen that the term yoga has its root in the word yuj which means to unite or join; referring to the unification of the four parts of the brain (reptilian, mammalian and the two cerebral hemispheres). Once achieved, the practitioner is able to enter into a union with God, or the eternal.

However, it should be noted that yoga is heavily tied to Hinduism, rather than Buddhism and this is another aspect of Barefoot Zen that I found unsatisfactory. Johnson admits that there are doctrinal differences between Hinduism and Buddhism, such as whether or not there is a permanent self, but notes that such a discussion is outside the scope of his book. Fair enough, this is potentially a convoluted discussion but, it has to be said, it is also the most fundamental point that distinguishes Hinduism from Buddhism. The aims of meditation of any type for a Hindu and a Buddhist are ultimately different and, followers of the two respective religions will argue, the actual practice of meditation will produce different results. Hindu posits that ultimately there is a universal observer; Buddhism that there is no one to observe and no thing to observe. My personal opinion, related to my research, is that these discoveries, occurring as they did in different times of our history, point to differences in consciousness through time and indicate that consciousness is not fixed or permanent.

Moving on though, Johnson continues in Barefoot Zen by examining Buddhism, and here he makes an important point that will be of relevance later when I examine The Great Karate Myth. Johnson states simply that Buddhism would not accept the use of any kind of weapon. This in itself is too simplistic a view. While doctrinal Buddhism certainly rejects violence of any kind a reading of Buddhism in history indicates that Buddhists - monks and lay persons alike - have resorted to violence and bloodshed in different parts of the world. More pertinent though to Johnson's line of argument is that in Barefoot Zem he is arguing that Sanchin is a Buddhist kata designed to promote enlightenment and is, by necessity, weaponless. He overturns his own argument in The Great Karate Myth though when he attempts to prove (with an equal lack of evidence) that Sanchin is a weapon form (albeit using a 'safe' sai). Buddhism ultimately rejects violence because of its rejection of self and other (contrary therefore to Hinduism). Compassion for oneself is to have compassion for others and vice versa.

This chapter of Barefoot Zen continues b looking at other factors that influenced Buddhism and through Buddhism, Zen, along with Chinese Taoism. Johnson offers an interesting definition of the Taoist idea of wu wei, which is normally understood as non-action or non-resistance. Johnson defines it as 'unmotivated action', meaning a total lack of premeditation or intention. Taoism, we learn in Barefoot Zen, is about discovering the interdependence of all things and the 'divine' (nameless) inspiration behind all of existence. This is discovered in the moment and by harmonizing with the timeless moment the Taoist becomes immortal.

More coming soon!!

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