In reading Mind Over Muscle I was blown away by Kano’s farsightedness, his motivation and his sense of public service. He was a figure of immense importance in the revitalization of Japanese bujutsu into modern budo, arguably the single most important figure if truth be told, and after reading this book you will gain a greater appreciation as to why he was so admired.
Mind Over Muscle begins with an explanation that it is an edited collection of Kano’s writing spanning 51 years of his life. There is some repetition of a central theme, but each repetition – made presumably at a different time in his life – conveys a slightly different message with each retelling and the book does not suffer from the re-examination of common themes; rather the different musings help the reader to gain a deeper grasp of the point being made.
The book has a 152 page count of which around 130 pages are from Jigoro Kano. There are three principal chapters – The Development of Judo, The Spirit of Judo and Judo Training – which are further split into subsections. The book carries no illustrations and readers interested in judo technique should refer to Kodokan Judo.
The Development of Judo
A Brief History of Judo
Kano begins by explaining that there were several names used to describe the art of fighting against an enemy with no weapon or with only a short weapon. Jujutsu was only one word among many that was in use towards the end of the nineteenth century. The precise origins of jujutsu, Kano reveals, are unknown. Some hold that one Chinese person or another introduced the art while others hold that it is a purely Japanese invention. Kano holds the latter opinion believing that claims to a Chinese influence were intended to convey – in the past – a sense of reliability and even superiority. He therefore concludes that jujutsu was a Japanese art created by and for Japanese whose reputation was enhanced by claims that it was of Chinese origin.
Originally jujutsu was intended to be practiced as a method of combat with certain schools emphasizing different techniques to achieve victory. As time passed – and no doubt influenced by the peacefulness of the Tokugawa era – combat efficiency became less important and the arts were studied for the sake of studying. The techniques themselves - knowledge of them and ability to execute them - took prime position rather than how effective they were. Kano was attracted to the various schools of jujutsu despite them having what he saw as weaknesses and he came to believe that with a few modifications jujutsu could become a comprehensive method of physical education, intellectual training and moral education. Therefore Kano devoted several years of his life to researching the different schools, keeping what he felt should be kept and discarding anything else.
From Jujutsu to Judo
As noted above there were many different words that could be substituted for jujutsu, and judo was itself one of them. Kano did not coin a new phrase – rather he redefined it (as we will see momentarily). Kano selected the name judo to make it clear that the emphasis of training was to be on the do (way) rather than just on technique or skill (jutsu). Another reason was to distance Kano’s art from the common public perception that jujutsu was dangerous; not only in execution but also in training. Kano explains in Mind Over Muscle that he did not want to formulate a violent or dangerous sport.
Although when literally translated judo means ‘soft way’ or, perhaps, ‘yielding way’, Kano used the name but offered a different (non-literal) meaning. Kano defined judo as using one’s mental and physical energy most effectively in order to achieve one’s goals no matter what the endeavor. In other words judo was about the study of efficiency and the application of efficiency to any undertaking, whether combative or not. I think this is an important point to understand and Mind Over Muscle returns to this key understanding several times. Kano is not dismissing strength as such (the application of which can be very confusing if one understands judo to be the ‘soft way’) but is arguing instead for the efficient use of one’s strength.
To teach his new art Kano introduced (or re-introduced) two methods of practice: kata (forms practice) and randori (free practice). Originally with only a few people training it was possible to teach both approaches to practice hand in hand, with the kata being less systematized, but as the numbers increased Kano found himself needing to codify what he was teaching and thus he began to formalize the kata. Most of the kata were completed by 1887 but as if revealed in Kodokan Judo Kano was still devising new kata as he aged and failed to finish one at the time of his death (The Itsutsu no kata as detailed below). The Dai Nihon Butokukai was also keen for standardized kata to exist and this premier organization exerted an influence also. Kano’s experiments in kata also saw the creation of the Itsutsu no Kata which marked a radical departure from the more normal attack – defense pattern seen up until then. This latter kata was less concerned about attack and defense and instead focused on expressing natural energy through movement. At the time of writing the article that appears in Mind Over Muscle Kano states that he only had three exchanges in the kata. This was expanded to five by the time of the publication of Kodokan Judo but the kata as a whole remained unfinished. To my eyes it resembles aikido more than conventional judo.
The Spirit of Judo
Seiryoku Zenyo - The Essence of Judo
Mind Over Muscle returns now to the subject of names and the origins of the term jujutsu. Kano suggests that the name is apparently derived from the expression ju yoku go o seisu, which can be translated as 'softness controls hardness'. However Kano is honest in stating that not everything can be explained using the theory of ju yoku go o seisu.
For example, when facing a stronger opponent if he rushes forward against you, the weaker of the two, and you try to resist head on, you will be overwhelmed. Better to evade and redirect the force while adding your own. This would be ju yoku go o seisu. On the other hand, if someone grabs your wrist with their thumb and forefinger and you resist by strengthening your wrist, you gain an advantage...but this is not ju yoku go o seisu. Therefore Kano prefers to see jujutsu as a method of defending against an attack, with ju yoku go o seisu being one theory among many and not all encompassing.
Interested but unsatisfied with the variety of theories underpinning the techniques of jujutsu Kano set about attempting to discover a universal principle. This he did, coming up with the phrase seiryoku saizen katsuyo or, as described in Mind Over Muscle, 'one's physical and mental energy must be used most effectively in order to achieve a certain goal'.
Kano saw this principle as being the most basic when considering a defense against an attack and the most basic in pursuit of any goal.
Judo and Physical Training
Continuing on from Kano's description of judo as being the effective use of one's mental and physical energy to achieve a goal, Mind Over Muscle notes that this is the fundamental principle and basis for all instruction.
In discussing the principle more closely related to physical education Kano notes that first your goal must be clear. With a clear goal, how to reach it also becomes clear. For example, if your goal is to attack his vital points you use atemi; if you desire to choke someone you use a choking technique, and so on.
As a result of this, when your goal is clear and with it your method of achieving that goal, you can next examine how to most efficiently use your energy. Therefore Kano has a different take on the value of physical education. He sees it as not simply a way to train the body and develop one's musculature or cardiovascular system. It is not about building muscles for the sake of building muscles (which Kano sees as taking too much time away from chances of personal development in other areas). Instead, it is about using physical education to research and express the deepest principle of judo.
While rejecting the idea of building muscles for its own sake, Kano also questions the true value of sport in Mind Over Muscle. Kano sees value in sports; they are interesting, competitive and young people are attracted to them. On the other hand, Kano argues that too much emphasis on winning can lead to athletes only working to develop those muscles specific to helping them gain victory while neglecting other parts of their body. A long distance runner has little use for upper body strength; a high jumper has no need for a well developed cardiovascular system. What Kano would like instead is a balanced approach to training.
What the master says next is - all these years later - truly astounding and insightful. He advises the development of a calisthenic program that incorporates training for defense against attack. Here is the forerunner of Taebo, Boxercise and so on. Kano wanted to see a method that exercised all body parts equally while also being martial in nature.
Judo and Intellectual Training
Kano starts this section of Mind Over Muscle with an interesting observation: people who have sound knowledge and people who have good judgment are not necessarily the same.
He continues, noting that 'in the acquisition of knowledge there is a difference depending on whether you emphasize basic knowledge that can be applied to anything, or emphasize practical, specific knowledge that is useful in actual terms'. This requires us to - once again - clarify our goals and then exercise our physical and mental energy in an efficient manner.
Again, even in the field of education, Kano returns to the essence of judo, a consistent theme in Mind Over Muscle.
Judo and Moral Education
Kano's intellect continues to dazzle in this section of Mind Over Muscle. He recognizes that morality must first develop out of knowledge; we must know intellectually what is good and what is evil, what is right and what is wrong. On the other hand, we also need to be in touch with our emotions (contacting both brain hemispheres in that case). We must be trained, according to Kano, to like doing what is right over what is wrong. This requires willpower and therefore training the will becomes a part of an effective approach to moral education. Kano also adds the need to cultivate the habit of doing the right thing.
Moral education needs to amalgamate these points and that requires the establishment of a clear goal and an efficient approach to fulfilling it.
Group Life and Judo
The next question Kano turns to in Mind Over Muscle is the problem of efficiently using one's physical and mental powers when two or more people form a group.
Kano's conclusion here is simple (in theory): Conflict is to mutual detriment just as harmony is to mutual gain.
Therefore if each member of a group helps others and acts selflessly the result will be a harmonious group. In this way the group is making the best use of the available energy and therefore maintaining the principle of judo.
Judo as Martial Art
It was interesting to me that Kano left the examination of judo as a fighting art to last. Kano explains that the reason for this is that judo began as a martial art, but with the establishment of the principle that it is really about putting one's physical and mental energy to work in the most effective manner, he recognized that this model could be applied to other endeavors such as physical education, intellectual education and so on.
Given the wide range of applications, Kano believed that the practice of judo in the dojo as a method of defense against attack, while being one aspect of training, is only a small part. Kano therefore sees judo as not simply a martial art, but rather as the guiding principle of human behavior. Judo, Kano concludes in Mind Over Muscle, does not exist merely in the dojo.
Judo and its Application to Everyday Life
Kano begins this section of Mind Over Muscle by asking the reader to consider the application of the principle of the efficient use of energy to life. He first calls into question the idea of diligence being good. While many would consider it so, Kano suggests that if we consider diligence to always be good then there can be no situation in which it is bad. However, if we are physically tired and continue to train (over-train) then the result can be sickness or injury. So in this case diligence is not such a good thing. Therefore we need to be careful in selecting what to be diligent about so as to avoid the wasteful expenditure of energy.
A good way to achieve this is to consider a particular situation first from the point of view of how to make the maximum efficient use of your physical and mental energy. Once determined, then set about in the diligent pursuit of your (clearly established) goal.
Kano reiterates an earlier point made in Mind Over Muscle: this principle - the real meaning of judo - can be discovered (and expressed) through the study of judo technique. But once understood, the principle can be expressed in any number of ways. Therefore Kano was apt to say to people jinsei no koro wa tada itsu aru nomi or 'There is only one path in life'; and this was the path of maximum efficiency.
Judo Training
The Three Aspects of Judo
Kano states in Mind Over Muscle that from the beginning of the Kodokan judo should be studied not only as a method of self-defense but as a way of training the body and cultivating the mind; in turn that trained body and cultivated mind must be put to good use. Therefore Kano identifies three aspects of judo training:
1) The study of attack and defense
2) The promotion of physical and mental well-being
3) The use of that higher energy to benefit society
Given that the purpose of judo is to ultimately benefit society, Kano recognizes that a good question may be: How is that purpose different from that of ordinary people and therefore what need is there to practice judo? Kano responds by saying that this is exactly the point; the purpose is no different to that of the ordinary person, and therein lies the value of judo.
What judo can offer however is a method to investigate the best method to contribute to society while also developing out ability to do so.
The Three Levels of Judo
Continuing on from the point made above, Kano states in Mind Over Muscle that judo can therefore be considered to have three levels: upper, middle and lower.
Lower level judo is training in defense against attack. Middle level judo is the cultivation of oneself and upper level judo is putting one's energy to use in society. Limiting your practice solely to the execution of defense against attacks, or even to the cultivation of yourself, is not therefore upper level judo. This uppermost level of judo has the widest application and requires the most creativity.
Strength as a Base
The idea of the upper level of judo being to benefit society is in stark contrast to the approach taken in the past by practitioners of jujutsu. Kano tells us in Mind Over Muscle that these men would practice to become strong without ever considering what they would do with their strength once it was developed. Kano warns that the same can be said of contemporary competition in Judo. Kano sees no real purpose in simply winning for the sake in winning; rather, how will the quest to win (whether in fact you do so or not) develop you as a person and allow you to contribute?
The Practice of Judo
The following notes are briefly covered by Kano in Kodokan Judo. Here he goes into more detail. He explains that rather than simply being a method of training in defense against attack, judo is designed to offer a far wider education. Kano concludes simply that 'spending years mastering judo simply for the purpose of repelling an attack is foolish'.
Improving Your Body Through Judo
Kano's philosophy here is simple: select waza that will exercise each part of your body equally and avoid over-training any one area.
Cultivation of Knowledge and Morals
Again, Kano's admonition in Mind Over Muscle is simple: Keep your mind open to opportunities to cultivate your knowledge and morals while practicing judo and you will find such opportunities. However, you must be mindful of this; it is not an inevitable outcome.
Effective Use of Mental and Physical Energy
Here again Kano returns to the central message of Mind Over Muscle: find the most efficient way to use your mental and physical energy in any endeavor. Kano recommends that those that practice judo measure their behavior by this principle on a daily basis and make corrections when appropriate. In this way you can make progress day by day.
Cultivation of Aesthetic Sentiments
Here Kano wants the judoka to take pleasure in the execution of their technique and that of others. Appreciate the beauty of your and others' movements.
The Development of the Intellect
After discussing the development of moral character through the study of judo Kano next turns to developing one`s intellect in Mind Over Muscle.
While studying judo Kano notes that observation is very important. Through observation the judoka is able to determine how and when to use certain waza in randori.
Another area of the intellect that is developed is memory. When you first begin there is an enormous amount of information to absorb and remember and this continues as more and more techniques are learned.
The next areas considered are imagination and experimentation. The process of gaining expertize in randori involves a great deal of consideration of strategy and this fires the imagination. The more ideas you have the greater is the chance that you will be able to develop an answer to an opponent. This by itself though is not enough. Once you have the inkling of a strategy it requires training and experimentation to figure out if it really works or not. This becomes almost like a scientific quest of discovery as one hypothesis after another is formulated and tested.
The fifth area Kano discusses is language. The effective teacher must develop his or her skill in explaining often difficult techniques to an audience that is new and unfamiliar to the subject. This can be extremely challenging and again requires the development of the intellect.
The last point considered in Mind Over Muscle is broad-mindedness. This is another striking point that undermines the idea that budo should be `stuck` at a certain point in history and never change thereafter. Kano says that it is important to be open to new ideas and to develop the ability to organize various kinds of ideas at the same time without mixing them up. Kano concludes simply that `if you stubbornly cling to your own ideas you cannot make progress`. Keep your mind open to new ideas, try them and then make your judgment.
The Relationship Between Oneself, Others and One`s Surroundings
Kano regards the application of mental training methods as being among the most interesting and beneficial aspects of judo training. He explains in Mind Over Muscle by way of example the teaching in competition that one must look at the relationship between oneself and others, and one`s surroundings. This relates to the importance of being aware of the dynamic interplay between those three variants.
Kano maintains that this concept is also important in politics, business and education. When you want to do a certain thing you must ascertain in detail the relationship between yourself and others and consider the associated advantages and disadvantages in advance; essentially carefully anticipate and consider the outcomes of things. Important teachings that Kano relates in Mind Over Muscle connected to his ideas here are saki o tore, or anticipate and look ahead; jukuryo danko, or the ability to act decisively after careful consideration and tomaru tokoro o shire, or knowing when to stop.
The Secrets of Judo and Their Uses
The `secret` of judo is simple: `If you win, do not boast of your victory; if you lose, do not be discouraged. When it is safe, do not become careless; when it is dangerous, do not fear - simply continue down the path ahead`.
The Samurai Spirit
Kano shares a very romantic view of the samurai spirit in Mind Over Muscle, believing that this spirit should be celebrated everyday as the warriors of old valued honor and integrity.
How to Benefit Society
Kano here encourages the adherent to live a simple, modest life, living within one`s means so that only a minimum amount of time and money is required to support yourself. Once this basic goal is reached, the next step is to acquire as much spare energy as possible to expend on bettering society. A better society will in turn mean a better life for you.
On the other hand, Kano warns, those who disregard society and live a selfish, self-centered life will be ultimately unsatisfied and spend what little energy they have complaining. Others will have little respect for them and they will come to be reviled.
Therefore students should not simply practice judo for the purpose of competition, but to become able to use it to attain a greater purpose in life. This isn`t to say victory should not be sought, but Kano points out in Mind Over Muscle that there is a big difference between training to be able to beat someone at a future time and becoming obsesses in one`s training with beating another right now. This may necessitate, for the time being, losing a series of matches as you improve your technique. Therefore, Kano states, you must `practice losing`.
Afterword by Naoki Murata
The afterword of Mind Over Muscle is also interesting. The writer notes that for Kano - an expert in education - judo was a means of education. The founder of judo believed that through the systematic study of jujutsu - taking what was good and rejecting what was bad - he would be able to establish a form of education through which exceptional individuals would be created.
Kano's vision for judo also swept across the oceans. Kano saw that Japan had learned much from foreign countries and owed a debt to world culture. He believed judo was one such way this debt could be repaid and for Japan to be seen as a cultural equal among the nations of the world. Furthermore, Kano trusted that as Japan helped to create an international society, Japan's national interest would be similarly served through mutual prosperity.
Another interesting point Kano made, though it isn't highlighted until the end of Mind Over Muscle, is his belief that the logic, or the underlying principle of judo, could be applied to all arts, such as kyujutsu (archery), kenjutsu (swordsmanship) and sojutsu (spearmanship) and that in this way all those arts could be called judo. For example, when the master archer pulls the string he is making the most efficient use of his mental and physical power. This is judo; and the same principal can be applied in every aspect of one's life. Life itself becomes judo. The theory of judo becomes the theory of life.
Conclusion
Mind Over Muscle is a great book and one to keep and reread. It gives tremendous insight into the way of thinking of Jigoro Kano, one of the driving forces behind the establishment of the Japanese martial ways in the early twentieth century, and arguably the greatest figure from that period. It is easy to see why Master Gichin Funakoshi (the founder of Shotokan karate), for example, was so impressed and influenced by Kano. Kano developed a philosophy of life, a philosophy of everything even, and devised a method (judo) through which that philosophy could be easier understood and initially expressed. There are traces here of Yamaoka Tesshu's ideas on the unification of particular and universal across a broad spectrum of arenas but Kano does a much better job of making such a theory more accessible and more easily understood. Easily one of the best books on martial arts around today.
